Psychological Development and Research Methods Flashcards

Flashcards covering key vocabulary from psychological development, brain function, and research methods.

Psychological Development

Progression of cognitive, emotional, and social functioning throughout life.

Developmental Psychology

Branch of psychology studying changes in cognitive, emotional, and social functioning.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate examining the influence of genetics and environment on development.

Nature Perspective

The perspective attributes development to biological inheritance and genetic predispositions

Nurture Perspective

The perspective emphasizes the impact of environmental factors such as family, culture, education, and personal experiences.

Biopsychosocial Model

Framework integrating biological, psychological, and social factors in human development.

Emotional Development

Changes in how individuals experience and express emotions.

Attachments

Strong emotional bonds formed with caregivers.

Typical Behavior

Behaviour consistent with societal expectations and does not interfere with daily life.

Atypical Behavior

Behavior that deviates significantly from expected norms; may indicate psychological issues.

Normality

Behaviour that is consistent with the common standards of a functioning society.

Neurotypicality

Individuals with typical neurological development and functioning.

Neurodiversity

The concept that variations in brain functioning are natural and should be respected.

Sensorimotor Stage

Learning through sensory experiences and motor actions (birth to 2 years).

Preoperational Stage

Features symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and animism (2 to 7 years).

Concrete Operational Stage

Understanding conservation and reversibility (7 to 12 years).

Formal Operational Stage

Introduces abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning (12 years and up).

Critical Periods

Specific times during which the brain is highly receptive to environmental input. Missing input may cause permanent impairment.

Sensitive Periods

Times when individuals are more responsive to learning or environmental influences, although effects are not irreversible.

Brain Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to experience.

Controlled Experiments

Establishing causal relationships between variables by manipulating one or more independent variables, researchers observe the effect on a dependent variable while keeping all other variables constant.

Correlational Studies

Measuring the relationship or association between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Literature Reviews

Systematically gathering, evaluating, and summarising existing research on a particular topic.

Case Studies

In-depth analyses of a single individual, group, or situation.

Validity

The accuracy of a study; whether it measures what it intends to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of research results.

Ethical Implications

Researchers must follow ethical guidelines, including obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, protecting participants from harm, and allowing the right to withdraw at any time.

Independent Variable

What the researcher changes or manipulates

Dependent Variable

What is measured in the experiment.

Extraneous Variables

Variables that could potentially affect the outcome of the experiment

Operationalization

Defining variables in practical, measurable terms.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Population

The larger group to which the researcher hopes to generalize findings.

Sample

The smaller group actually studied.

Ablation

Intentionally removing specific brain regions to study how behavior changes.

Lesioning

Intentionally damaging specific brain regions to observe behavioral effects.

Split-Brain Procedures

Severing the corpus callosum to study hemispheric specialization.

Brain Lateralization

Some tasks are dominantly processed in one hemisphere.

Cerebral Cortex

Part of brain that plays a critical role in complex cognitive activities such as thinking, perception, and decision-making.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in voluntary movement, planning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information like touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

Occipital Lobe

Mainly responsible for visual processing.

Temporal Lobe

Deals with auditory processing and language comprehension.

Acquired Brain Injuries

Injuries to brain due to trauma, stroke, infection, or oxygen loss.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

External force damages the brain, such as a blow to the head, fall, car accident, or assault.

Non-Traumatic Brain Injury

Damage to the brain without external physical force.

Neurological Disorders

Conditions that affect brain function and behavior.

Parkinson’s Disease

Progressive disorder with tremors, rigidity, slow movement due to dopamine loss.

Epilepsy

Recurrent seizures caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

Degenerative brain disease linked to repeated head injuries.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change its structure and function.

Synaptogenesis

Formation of new synapses to strengthen neural networks.

Synaptic Pruning

Removes weak or unused connections to improve efficiency.

Myelination

Forming a myelin sheath around neurons, speeding up signal transmission.

Developmental Plasticity

Occurs naturally as the brain matures.

Adaptive Plasticity

Happens after brain injury, allowing compensation for lost functions.

Rerouting

Undamaged neurons forming new pathways to bypass damaged areas.

Sprouting

Growth of new branches from neurons to create additional connections.

Beneficence

Research benefits outweigh risks to participants.

Integrity

Conducting and reporting research honestly and accurately.

Justice

Fair treatment and selection of participants without bias.

Respect

Acknowledging participant autonomy and dignity

Non-Maleficence

Avoiding harm to participants.

Informed Consent

Participants are fully informed and agree to take part voluntarily.

Voluntary Participation

Participants choose freely to join without pressure.

Confidentiality

Protects participants’ private information.

Withdrawal Rights

Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.

Debriefing

Explaining the true nature of the study, especially if deception was used.

Independent Variable

One manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

What is measured, expected to change due to IV manipulation.

Controlled Variables

Factors kept constant to ensure valid results.

Extraneous Variables

Variables that may unintentionally influence the DV.

Confounding Variable

A type of extraneous variable that affects the DV.

Population

The entire group of individuals relevant to a research question.

Sample

Specific participants chosen from the population.

Hypothesis

A precise, testable prediction.

Convenience Sampling

Choosing participants who are easy to access.

Random Sampling

Every population member has an equal chance of selection.

Stratified Sampling

Dividing the population into subgroups and sampling proportionally.

Sampling Bias

Selection leads to an unrepresentative sample.

Non-Random Allocation

Placing participants into groups without randomization.

Random Allocation

Uses chance to assign participants to groups.

Experimental Group

Exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

Not exposed to the independent variable.

Controlled Experiments

Deliberate manipulation of an IV under controlled conditions.

Correlational Studies

Explore the relationship between two variables without manipulation.

Literature Reviews

Analysis of existing research.

Case Studies

In-depth investigation of a single person or small group.

Fieldwork

Takes place in natural environments.

Within-Subjects Design

The same participants are used in all conditions of the experiment.

Between-Subjects Design

Different participants are assigned to each condition of the experiment.

Mixed Design

Combines within-subjects and between-subjects elements.

Beneficence

Maximising the potential benefits of research while minimising any possible risks or harm.

Non-Maleficence

The obligation to avoid causing physical or psychological harm to participants.

Justice

Ensures that all individuals are treated fairly, with an equitable distribution of both the benefits and burdens of research.

Respect

Highlights the importance of recognising and valuing each participant's autonomy, cultural background, and inherent rights.

Integrity

Calls on researchers to act honestly and transparently, both in conducting their research and in reporting results truthfully.

Informed Consent

Participants voluntarily agree to take part in a study after being fully informed about its aims, procedures, and potential risks.

Confidentiality

Ensures that all personal information collected is protected and not shared without explicit permission.