*MCAT Concept 7A: Individual Influences on Behavior

6 Theories of Personality (describe each in 2 words)

1. Psychoanalytic perspective: unconscious thoughts

2. Humanistic perspective: free will

3. Trait perspective: trait mixture

4. Social cognitive perspective: reciprocal interactions

5. Biological perspective: genes & neurotransmitters

6. Behaviorist perspective: environmental learning

6 Types of Personality Disorders

1. Anxiety disorders

2. Mood disorders

3. Somatoform disorders

4. Schizophrenia

5. Dissociative disorder

6. Personality disorders

"Personality"

a person's individual way of thinking, feeling, and behaviors

Psychoanalytic Theory

personality is shaped by unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories

conscious thought is quite limited - unconscious is inferred from behaviors like dreams & slips of the tongue

associated with Sigmund Freud

[Freud] Libido & Death instinct

(2 instincts described by Freud - psychoanalytic theory)

Libido =life instinct - drives behavior based on survival, growth, pain avoidance & pleasure

Death instinct drives aggressive behavior fueled by unconscious wish to die or to hurt onself or others

Freud's 3 Personality Components: Id, Ego, Superego

source of energy & instincts (unconscious)

- ruled by "pleasure principle"

- seeks pleasure, avoids pain & reduces tension

- doesn't use logical/moral reasoning

- doesn't distinguish mental images from external objects

(1 of 3 personality components functioning together that compose psychic energy - Freud's psychoanalytic theory)

Ego defense mechanisms

anxiety coping mechanisms that protect the ego by unconsciously denying/distorting reality

(i.e. repression, denial, projection, rationalization)

Freud's 5 Psychosexual Stages

Child seeks sensual pleasure

1. Oral stage - sucking/chewing

2. Anal stage - control of elimination

3. Phallic stage - genitals

4. Latent stage - sexual interests subside

5. Genital stage - sexual themes resurface/fuel activities

Psychological fixation (Freud)

sensual pleasure at certain psychosexual stage of development causes adult personality to exhibit behaviors related to that stage of developmental conflict

Freud vs. His Followers: Developmental Stages

Jung/Horney/Adler/Erikson

- had more optimistic views of humanity

- personality more changeable over lifespan (less dependent on early childhood)

- people motivated/influenced by growth instinct, striving for superiority, or social factors (as opposed to sensual urges)

Erikson vs. Freud - Developmental Stages

Erikson extended Freud's developmental stages

1. Added social/interpersonal factors

2. Delineated 8 developmental stages/conflicts in adolescence & adulthood

Psychoanalytic Therapy

focuses on making patient aware of unconscious motives & gaining insight into emotional issues/conflicts that are presenting difficulties

- help choose conscious behaviors

- strengthen ego

Humanistic Theory

humans are inherently good & have free will

focuses on healthy personality development

associated with Carl Rogers

Behaviorist Theory

personality is learned behavior patterns based on person's environment (deterministic)

(people begin as blank slates and are punished/reinforced into behaviors/personalities)

Humanistic therapy

provides environment that helps clients trust/accept themselves and their emotional reactions so that they can learn and grow from experiences

[Humanistic perspective]

Behavioral therapy

uses conditioning to shape clients behaviors in desired direction using ABC model (antecedents and consequences of behavior) - therapy changes antecedents and consequences using least aversive means possible

common applications: densensitization

[Behaviorist perspective]

Social Cognitive Perspective

personality formed by reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

- learned behavior via classical/operant conditioning

- observational learning

- conscious cognitive processes

- situational influences/opportunities/rewards/punishments

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

Behavioral therapy + cognitive approach

helps client become more aware of irrational/dysfunctional thoughts & beliefs and substitute rational/accurate beliefs and thoughts, hopefully leading to more functional feelings and behaviors

[Social cognitive perspective]

Personality trait

predisposition toward a certain behavior

(Trait theory)

Trait Theory

focus on identifying, describing, measuring, and comparing individual differences and similarities with respect to traits

associated with Raymond Cattell

Raymond Cattell

identified 16 surface traits using factor analysis (Trait Theory)

Surface traits & Source Traits

Surface traits evident from a person's behavior

i.e. "talkative"

Source Traits factors underlying human personality/behavior

i.e. "extrovert"

(Trait theory)

"Global factors" initially created to characterize personality traits

source traits

1. Extroversion

2. Anxiety

3. Receptivity

4. Accommodation

5. Self-control

Five-Factor Model

(McCrae & Costa)

widely accepted model of global factors attributed to Trait theory

Biological perspective

much of personality is at least partly due to innate biological differences among people

supported by heritability of basic personality traits & correlations in brain structure

associated with Hans Eysenck, Jeffrey Alan Gray, and C. Robert Cloninger

Hans Eysenck

1. Extroversion based on individual differences in reticular formation (introverts more easily aroused & handle less stimulation)

2. Neuroticism based on individual differences in limbic system

(Biological perspective)

Jeffrey Alan Gray

personality governed by interactions among 3 brain systems responding to reward/punishment stimuli

1. Fear/avoidance linked to sympathetic nervous system

2. Worry/anxiety linked to behavioral inhibition system

3. Optimism/impulsivity linked to behavioral approach system

(Biological perspective)

C. Robert Cloninger

personality linked to level of brain neurotransmitter in 3 interacting systems

- low dopamine = higher impulsivity/novelty seeking

- low norepinephrine = higher approval seeking/reward dependence

(Biological perspective)

Person-situation controversy (trait vs. state controversy)

considers degree to which a person's reaction to situation is due to personality (trait) vs. situation (state)

[Situational Approach]

Traits vs. States

Trait: internal, stable, enduring personality aspects

State: situational (unstable, temporary) variable aspects of personality influenced by external environment

[Situational Approach]

Social cues

People modify behavior in uncomfortable situations based on nonverbal/verbal hints - specific traits may stay hidden

[Situational Approach]

Actualizing tendency

most basic motive of all people - innate drive to maintain & enhance the organism

[Humanistic perspective]

Self-actualization

realizing his or her human potential (as long as no obstacle intervenes)

[Humanistic perspective]

Carl Rogers

developed humanistic theory

- proposed that child introjects value of caregiver into his or her own self-concept to still see both self and caregiver as good

Self-Concept

conscious, subjective perceptions and believes about an individuals self

[Humanistic perspective]

Incongruence

Feeling experienced by people when they encounter experiences that are contradict their self-concepts

[Humanistic perspective]

Comparing the Roots of Psychopathology

Humanistic: discrepancy between conscious introjected values and unconscious true values

Social Cognitive: irrational/dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs

Trait: N/A - each personality type has strengths/weaknesses

Psychoanalytic: needs/tasks not met during psychosexual stages of development - also childhood events, unconscious feelings, thoughts, and motivations

Anxiety disorders (general definition)

characterized by excessive worry, uneasiness, apprehension and fear with both physical and psychological symptoms

Mood disorders (general definition)

characterized by a disturbance in mood or affect; 2 broad categories distinguished by the presence/absence of a manic or hypomanic episode

Prevalence of Psychological Disorders - (most to least)

(18%) Anxiety

(10%) Mood/dissociative

(6-10%) Personality

(1-6%) Eating

(.2-2%) Somatoform

(1%) Psychotic

Somatoform disorders (general definition)

symptoms not explained by medical conditions or substance abuse - not attributable to another mental disorder

Conversion disorder (general definition)

Emotional conflict/stressor causes physical symptoms severe enough to warrant medical attention

Dopamine hypothesis (Schizophrenia)

[Schizophrenia]

hyperactive dopaminergic pathway

- overabundance of dopamine

- hypersensitive dopamine receptors

Biological Basis of Schizophrenia (including positive/negative signs)

Genetic Predisposition + Environmental Trigger

Positive Signs:

1) Dopamine hypothesis

2) Hyperactivation of temporal lobes

Negative Signs:

1) Hypofunctioning frontal lobes

2) Smaller brains due to atrophy: increaseed ventricles, enalrged sulci and fissures

Biological Basis of Depression

Genetic Basis (increased risk)

1) Hypofunctioning of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine pathways

2) Damage to areas of brain can be accompanied by neurological diseases

Alzheimer's Disease (general definition)

most prevalent form of dementia

- retrograde amnesia

- impaired visual memory (lost/confused)

cortical disease (affects cortex)

Biological Basis of Alzheimer's Disease

caused by formation of neuritic plaques (hard formations of beta-amyloid protein and neurofibrillary tangles)

Unclear why plaques form - thought to accumulate and reach "Critical mass" and cause neuronal connection death

some evidence of abnormalities in activity of acetylcholine in hippocampus

Biological Basis of Parkinson's Disease

movement disorder caused by death of dopamine-generating cells in basal ganglia and substantia nigra

Positive Symptoms of Psychosis

(something has been added)

- delusions

- hallucinations

- disorganized speech

- disorganized/catatonic behavior

Negative Symptoms of Psychosis

(something has been taken away)

- reduced/absent emotional expression (flat affect)

- reduced quantity/fluency of speech

- reduced initiative/willpower (avolition)

Schizophrenia (general definition)

chronic, incapacitating disorder in which a person is out of touch with reality (psychotic) and suffers occupational, social, or personal functioning

5 Types of Schizophrenia

1. Paranoid-type (hallucinations/delusions)

2. Catatonic-type (catatonic/strange behavior)

3. Disorganized-type (negative symptoms)

4. Undifferentiated-type (doesn't fit other subtype)

5. Residual-type (previously met criteria, now milder)

Schizoaffective disorder (general definition)

combo of mood/psychotic symptoms (i.e. schizophrenia + major depressive/manic/mixed episodes)

Schizophreniform disorder (general definition)

AKA pre-schizophrenia

displayed schizophrenia symptoms for 1-6 months, may or may not have interfered with person's functioning

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

individuals will seek to fulfill physiological needs before looking to fill higher-level needs

[Motivation]

Principle of Aggregation

attitudes predict general overall behavior well, but don't always predict specific behaviors

Philip Zimbardo

discovered that role-playing has a powerful influence on attitudes & behaviors

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

suggests that individuals will attempt to reduce tension (dissonance) between beliefs that are incompatible

Drive-Reduction Theory

suggests that individuals engage in certain behavior in an attempt to alleviate physiological states of discomfort

[Motivation]

3 Main Components of Attitude

ABC's

1) Affect (emotion)

2) Behavior tendencies

3) Cognition (thought)

3 Situations in which Behaviors are Likely to Influence Attitudes

1) Role-playing

2) Public declarations

3) Justification of Effort

Justification of effort

modification of attitude to match their behaviors

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

enticing people to take small actions (i.e. join mailing list) at first, then later further encourage raised stakes (i.e. attaining bumper stickers)

Instincts

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

[Motivation]

Drive

urge originating from physiological discomfort (i.e. hunger, sleepiness, thirst)

[Motivation]

Incentive Theory

[Motivation]

external stimuli, objects, and events in the environment that help induce/discourage certain behaviors

- can be positive or negative

- behaviors most strongly motivated when there are physiological needs, strong positive incentives, and a lack of negative incentives

Attitude

person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around them and their tendency to react behaviorally based on those underlying evaluations

Medulla

Involuntary functions

(BP, HR, RR, reflexes)

Brainstem Components

Medulla

Pons

Midbrain

Hindbrain Components

Medulla

Pons

Cerebellum

Pons (function)

Relay station & balance/posture

Cerebellum (function)

movement coordination/spatial equilibrium

Midbrain (function)

eye movement

Thalamus (function)

Integrating center/relay station for somatic (conscious) sensation

Hypothalamus (function)

homeostatic functions/regulation

primitive emotions/behavior

Basal nuclei (function)

movement/coordination of learned patterns

Limbic system (function)

Emotion, memory, & learning

*memory storage/retrieval

*conscious/unconscious linkage

Cerebral Cortex (4 lobes) (function)

Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital

Frontal Lobe (function)

voluntary movement

complex reasoning/thinking

Parietal Lobes (function)

general sensations & gustation (taste)

Temporal Lobes (function)

Auditory/olfactory sensation

Short-term memory/language/emotion

Occipital Lobe (function)

Vision

Corpus callous (function)

connects L/R cerebral hemispheres

Peptide vs. Steroid Hormones

Diencephalon

(component of forebrain) - includes thalamus + hypothalamus

Forebrain components (2)

diancephalon

telencephalon

3 Major Changes to the Brain during Adolescence

1. Cell Proliferation (prefrontal lobes/limbic system)

2. Synaptic Pruning (unused/unneeded connections)

3. Myelination (strengthens connections)

*Limbic system develops very rapidly - explains emotional tendencies

Motor Development

Proponents of the Biological Perspective of Personality

Hans Eysenck

Raymond Catell

Biological Perspective of Personality: Strengths/Weaknesses

Strengths uses quantifiable scientific data and methodology; deterministic in its ability to establish causal relationships (used to treat disorders)

Limitations disregards social/environmental influences

Proponents of the Trait Perspective of Personality

Gordon Allport

Raymond Cattell

Hans Eysenck

5-Factor Model of Personality (5 Factors)

(OCEAN)

Openness to experience

Conscientousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Criticisms of the 5 Factor Model of Personality

Biomedical vs Biopsychosocial Approach to Understanding Psychological Disorders

Biopsychosocial approach attempts to find underlying psychological/social conditions that may be contributing to the manifestation of disease

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

modification of Freud's psychosexual theory that revolves around the resolution of 2 conflicting ideas at each of the 8 stages

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Behavioral Genetics: Heritability Estimates

in specific subgroups of individuals in a population, heritability estimates try to identify the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes

(population-specific)

highest in uniform environments, where genes play a larger role

Epigenetics

the study of gene expression that deals with manipulations in components OTHER THAN DNA

i.e. methylation

Covert Behavior

behavior that is not observed