Ind. Rev. ID Terms*

Urbanization

the process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated in relatively small areas, forming cities; the process by which more and more people leave the countryside to live in cities

Consumerism

The ever-increasing pursuit of material goods, services, and recreation; the belief that excessive buying of goods has a positive effect on the economy; a social and economic order that encourages buying goods in ever-greater amounts; a lifestyle that revolved around the purchase of goods

Agricultural Revolution

The changes in the methods of farming and stock breeding led to a significant increase in food production; could now feed more people at lower prices with less labor; ordinary British families did not have to use most of their income to buy food, giving them the potential to purchase manufactured goods; great technological advancements and political reform which caused the supply of food to increase dramatically; the fallow method of farming was eliminated; new inventions such as the seed drill and the steel plow made farming easier and faster

Capital

investment in the new industrial machines and the factories that were needed to house them; wealth in the form of money or other assets owned by a person or organization or available or contributed for a particular purpose such as starting a company or investing

Enclosure movement

fenced in farms in an attempt to farm more efficiently, often at the expense of the peasants who used common fields to farm and graze animals; contributed to a population shift toward the cities and a rise in agricultural productivity; confiscated land that had formerly been owned in common by all members of a village, or at least available to the public for grazing animals and growing food, and change it to privately owned land, usually with walls, fences or hedges around it; impacts included peasants forced off of land, migration to cities to look for work, cottage industry, and more poor farm laborers

Textile manufacturing

Making of linen, woolen, and cotton cloth was what cottage workers did in the putting-out system; first industry to be revolutionized in Britain and the nation dominated in this industry; new inventions made production faster and more efficient

Coal mining

Britain had an abundance of this natural resource and eventually produced 2/3 of it for the world; heats longer and powers steam engines; countries with large deposits of this natural resource usually industrialize faster

Steam engine (James Watt)

Rapidly replaced water-powered machines; a way to power machinery, including textile mills and factory production lines, making it possible to produce goods on a large scale at a lower cost; could pump water from mines three times as quickly as previous engines; expanded its possibilities by developing a rotary engine that could turn a shaft and thus drive machinery; could now be applied to spinning and weaving cotton fired by coal, they did not need to be located near rivers and provided entrepreneurs with greater flexibility in their choice of location

Flying shuttle

John Kay had sped the process of weaving on a loom, enabling weavers to double their output; caused shortages of yarn; it made the weaving process faster because instead of one person working manually, it would shoot across the loom, making weaving much faster

Spinning jenny

James Hargreaves invented and increased the production of weaved cotton; helped make thread much faster; it can spin more than one yarn at a time; enabled spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities

Water frame

Invented by Richard Arkwright; powered by water or horse and increased yarn production; turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels, led to development of mechanized looms

Cotton gin

A machine for cleaning the seeds from cotton fibers improved by Eli Whitney; helped cotton cleaners move at a level pace with cotton production; transformed cotton into a profitable crop by reducing its processing time and making large-scale cultivation possible

Steam pump

Thomas Newcomen invented to push water out of mines; burned coal to produce steam; a machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion; first crude but workable steam engine; rid coal mines of water seepage

Condensing chamber steam engine

Greatly improved model of the water frame by James Watt; plentiful coal boosted iron production and gave rise to heavy industry (the manufacture of machinery and materials used in production)

Railroad steam locomotive (Richard Trevithick)

pioneered the first steam-powered train on an industrial rail line in southern Wales; it pulled 10 tons of ore and seventy people at 5 miles per hour; harnessed high-pressure steam and constructed the world’s first steam railway train; took the steam engine and put it in a train to create what would be one of the most successful means of transportation for hundreds of years to come

Henry Cort

was an English ironmaster; began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron (or bar iron) using innovative production systems; patented the puddling process for refining iron ore; developed the puddling furnace, which allowed pig iron to be refined in turn with coke; also developed heavy-duty, steam-powered rolling mills, which were capable of spewing out iron in every shape and form

Puddling

a process in which coke was used to burn away impurities in pig iron (the product of smelting iron ore with coke) to produce an iron of high quality called wrought iron; made the first appreciable volumes of high-grade bar iron during the Industrial Revolution

Pig Iron

crude iron that is the direct product of the blast furnace and is refined to produce steel, wrought iron, or ingot iron; a type of iron produced by smelting iron ore with coke of lower quality than wrought iron; high-carbon iron made by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace; the product of smelting iron ore with coke

Wrought Iron

A high quality iron first produced during the 18th century in Britain; manufactured by puddling, a process Henry Cort developed using coke to burn away the impurities in pig iron; coke was used to burn away impurities in pig iron to produce an iron of high quality; with its lower carbon content, it was malleable and able to withstand strain

Mass marketing

using a single marketing strategy to reach all customers; strategy in which a firm markets its products or services to a large number of people simultaneously; a new technique employed by businesses (who relied on social psychologists) to help sell the consumer goods made possible by the development of the steel and electrical industries

Telegraph

Uses Morse code to send messages, developed by Samuel F. B Morse; a communication system for transmitting messages over a distance by radio or electrical signals

Internal combustion engines

a new invention of the Second Industrial Revolution; worked a lot better because it was fueled by oil and gas which was a new source of power in transportation; led to the invention of the automobile and the airplane; fired by gas and air, unsuitable for a widespread use as a source of power in transportation until the development of liquid fuels

Factory Act of 1833

strengthened earlier labor legislation; all textile factories were now included; children between the ages of nine and thirteen could work only eight hours a day; those between thirteen and eighteen, twelve hours; factory inspectors were appointed with the power to fine those who broke the law; sought to limit the abuses of child labor by limiting children younger than fourteen to no more than eight hours of labor a day and children between the ages of fourteen and eighteen to no more than twelve hours of labor a day; limited the factory workday for children between nine and thirteen years of age to eight hours and that of adolescents between fourteen and eighteen years of age to twelve hours

Mines Act of 1842

forbade the use of boys younger than ten and women in the mines; eliminated the employment of boys under ten and women in mines; forbade any women or any children under 10 years of age to work in the coal mines; prohibited underground work for all women as well as for boys under ten

Ten Hours Act of 1847

reduced the workday for children between thirteen and eighteen to ten hours; women were also now included in the ten-hour limit; restricted the working hours of women and children in British factories to effectively 10 hours per day

Bourgeoisie

people involved in commerce, industry, and banking as well as professionals, such as lawyers, teachers, physicians, and government officials at various levels; at the lower end of the economic scale were master craftspeople and shopkeepers; The new professional urban class of merchants/lawyers/etc.; fed the consumer culture with their large incomes

Proletariat

huge industrial working class; the industrial working class who, according to Marx, were unfairly exploited by the profit-seeking bourgeoisie

Chadwick Report of 1842

outlined in detail the wretched social and environmental conditions within the world's first industrial society; advocated for a system of modern sanitary reforms consisting of efficient sewers and a supply of piped water; proved that disease was related to filthy environments

Public Health Act of 1848

facilitated the building of sanitary systems, especially water supplies and sewerage; established local and central units of government that would take responsibility for health, at least for those aspects affected by the built environment; created the National Board of Health, empowered to form local boards that would establish modern sanitary systems

Cholera

Outbreaks of this deadly disease had ravaged Europe in the early 1830s and late 1840s and were especially rampant in the overcrowded cities; an extremely deadly disease that was prevalent in urban European society during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; spread through contaminated water and causes death through dehydration; infectious disease characterized by profuse diarrhea, vomiting, cramps, etc

George Haussmann

French civil servant and urban planner best known for his extensive renovation of Paris during the mid-19th century; a French civic planner whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris; hired by Napoleon III, responsible for rebuilding Paris; made wider streets (boulevards) which encouraged expansion and caused less traffic; built aqueducts, improved sewers, put zoning laws in place, and created open spaces

Feminism

Movements aimed at defining, establishing and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women; advocacy for women's rights and equality between sexes; advocated for women's right to pursue an education and freely exercise their talents

Trade Unions

collections of workers created to increase their power relative to the owners; organized associations of workers in a trade, group of trades, or profession, formed to protect and further their rights and interests; an association of workers in the same trade, formed to help members secure better wages, benefits, and working conditions

Luddites

critics of the Industrial Revolution who refused to believe in and use technology, they destroyed "looms" and factories; English textile workers who resisted the introduction of the factory system; a group of handcraft workers that attacked whole factories in Northern England by smashing machines, which they believed were putting them out of work

Second Industrial Revolution

production moved from a focus on textile production to a focus on the mass production of steel and machinery; mainly focused on steel, oil, electricity, and chemicals