Research Methods

What is a Laboratory experiment? (2)

1. Carried out in a controlled setting

   2. Manipulation of the IV

What are the two strengths of a lab experiment? (2)

1. Control over variables

   2. Replicability 

"How does ""control over variables"" evaluate lab experiments? (3)"

1. easy control of potential confounding variables

   2. cause and effect can be established

   3. High internal validity 

"How does ""replicability"" evaluate lab experiments? (2)"

1. Easily repeated by other researchers

   2. If other researchers get the similar results then its reliable

what are the two limitations of lab experiments? (2)

1. Artificial 

   2. Demand characteristics 

"How does ""Artificial"" evaluate lab experiments? (4)"

1. High levels of control

   2. So, different from real life situations

   3. difficult to generalise findings to other settings

   4. Low ecological validity

"How does ""Demand characteristics"" evaluate lab experiments? "

1. Participants figure out the aim of the experiment through cues.

   2. They then act accordingly

   3. To try and help the experimenter 

What is a field experiment? (3)

1. Carried out in a natural environment

   2. IV is manipulated

   3. Participants may be unaware they're being studied

What are the two strengths of a field experiment? (2)

1. Ecological validity
   2. Reduced demand characteristics 

"How does ""Ecological validity"" evaluate field experiments? (2)"

1. Carried out in natural environment
   2. Findings can be generalised to other real life settings

"How does ""reduced demand characteristics"" evaluate field experiments? (2)"

1. Participants are unaware they're being studied
   2. So, demand characteristics may be minimised  

What are the limitations of field experiments? (2)

1. Less control
   2. More time consuming 

"How does ""less control"" evaluate field experiments? (2)"

1. Difficult to control potential confounding variables
   2. Harder to establish cause and effect

What is a natural experiment (2)

1. IV occurring naturally
   2. Allocation of participants is outside the control of the researcher 

What are the two strengths of a natural experiment? (2)

1. reduced demand characteristics
   2. lack of direct intervention 

"How does ""reduced demand characteristics"" evaluate natural experiments? (2)"

1. Participants may be unaware of research
   2. Influence of demand characteristics minimised 

what are the limitations of natural experiments? (2)

1. Loss of control
   2. Replication impossible

"How does ""loss of control"" evaluate natural experiments? (2)"

1. IV not directly controlled by the investigator
   2. Cannot establish cause and effect 

"How does ""replication impossible"" evaluate natural experiments?"

1. Naturally occurring situation may occur only rarely
   2. so, replication almost impossible 

What is a quasi-experiment? 

An experiment that has an IV that is based on an existing difference between people. No one has manipulated this difference it simply exists.

What are the strenghts of a quasi experiment? (2)

1.  Replicability: Quasi experiments are often carefully planned and carried out under controlled conditions which means that they can be replicated.
2. Quasi-experiments are useful to make comparisons between types of people where it is impossible or impractical to manipulate variables
   

What are the two limitations of quasi experiments?

1. Confounding variables: Quasi experiments cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables which means we cannot establish causality.
2. Demand characteristics: Quasi experiments are often carried out in a laboratory and therefore there may be demand characteristics.
   

What is an aim?

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, to be clear about the purpose of a study

What is a hypothesis?

a precise testable statement made at the beginning of an investigation about what the researcher expects to happen.

What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?

Aim: General statement made at the beginning of an investigation

Hypothesis: Precise testable statement 

What is a directional hypothesis?

States the direction in which the results go. Used when previous research suggests a direction.

What is a non directional hypothesis?

States that there will be a difference but does not state the expected direction of the outcome. Used when there is no previous research or when previous research has found contradictory results.

What is a null hypothesis?

States there is no difference and results are due to chance.

What is the independent variable?

Variable manipulated by the experimenter or altered by the situation/ characteristics of a participant.

What is the dependent variable?

Variable measured by the experimenter.

What is an extraneous variable?

Any variable other than the independent variable which might affect the dependent variable.

What is a confounding variable?

Any variable other than the independent variable which does affect the dependent variable.

What is meant by the operationalisation of variables?

Defining variables clearly so they can be specifically tested and measured accurately. 

What is the repeated measured design?

The same participants are used in all conditions of the independent variable.

what are the advantages of the repeated measures design? (2)

Fewer participants required

Individual differences are eliminated meaning any difference in performance should be due to the manipulation of the IV.

What are the disadvantages of the repeated measures design? (3)

Order effects may occur

Demand characteristics 

Sometimes not possible to use the same material in each condition

What is the independent groups design?

Participants are placed in separate groups. Each group doing one level of the independent variable.

What are the advantages of the independent groups design?

No order effects

Less opportunity of becoming aware of the aim of reducing demand characteristics

Same material can be used in all conditions

What are the the disadvantages of independent groups design?

Participant variables are introduced

More participants are required

What is the matched pairs design?

Pairs of participants are matched closely on a relevant characteristic. Each participant is randomly allocated to one condition or the other. 

What are the advantages of the matched pairs design?

Avoids order effects

Avoids demand characteristics

Reduces individual differences

The same material can be used in both conditions

What are the disadvantages of the matched pairs design? (2)

It is difficult to match everything about the participants.

It is very time consuming and requires more participants 

What is random allocation and how does it help improve internal validity of the independent groups design?

Involves allocating participants to experimental groups in an unbiased way so they have an equal chance of being selected to take part in each condition. Is used to address the problem of individual differences in the independent groups design.

What is a method of random allocation?

Assigning each ppt a number and placing them in a random number generator.

What does counterbalancing improve and how does it work?

Used to control the impact of order effects in repeated measures design and improve internal validity. it ensured order effects are equally distributed across all conditions. It does not reduce order effects. Counter balancing works by having half the participants take part in condition A and then B and the other half take part in condition B then A.

What is randomisation and what does it improve?

refers to the use of chance wherever possible when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions. This avoids researcher bias influencing the design of the study. It is an attempt to control investigator effects and improve internal validity.

What is standardisation and what does it improve?

Standardisation is a way of ensuring all participants have exactly the same environment, information, and experience, so individual experience does not confound the results, improving internal validity.

What are ways of improving the reliability of experiments? (2)

Taking more than one measurement from each participant and take a mean.

Pilot studies 

What are ways of improving the external validity of experiments? (2)

Improve ecological validity by conducting the experiment in a more naturalistic, real life setting

Improve population validity by taking larger, more varied samples

What are demand characteristics?

Cues in the experimental situation that makes the participant aware of the aim of the research, or how participants are expected to behave, leading to the ppt changing their behaviour.

In what ways to demand characteristics create participant reactivity? (3)

Trying to guess the purpose of the research and acting in a way which they feel is helpful or unhelpful to the researcher.

Acting nervously and out of character because of being in a research situation and worried of being evaluated.

Displaying a social desirability bias, wishing themselves to be seen in the most favourable light possible.

What are ways to reduce demand characteristics? (2)

Use a single blind technique, where the ppt has no idea of the research or which experimental group they're in.

Use deception and distractor questions.

What are investigator effects and what are some examples? (3)

Any unintentional influences of a researchers behaviour or characteristics on the performance of the participants.

Physical characteristics (e.g. age, gender).

Behaviour such as verbal communication (tone of voice, accent) or non verbal communication (eye contact, smiling).

Expectations of the outcome of the study.

What are ways of reducing investigator effects? (2)

Using a double blind technique - Neither the participant nor the investigator is aware of the true aims or details of the investigation, so have no expectation.

Use standardised instructions - Decreases the possibility that the investigator can communicate expectations. Researchers can be trained to use a neutral tone for reading instructions, for interviews a standardised script can be used.

What is a pilot study?

A small scale trial run of a study which takes place before the real investigation is carried out.

What is the aim of a pilot study? (3)

To check that the procedures, materials and measuring scales work.

To allow the researcher to make changes or modification to the design if necessary.

To improve the quality of research, help avoid unnecessary work, save time and money.

What is meant by the target population?

A group of people that share a given set of characteristics about which a researcher wishes to draw conclusions.

What is the random sampling method?

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. E.g. by placing all names from a target population into a hat, or by using a random generator.

What are the strengths of random sampling? (1)

Less biased so all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection.

What are the limitations of random sampling? (3)

Might not be representative of the population.

Relies on the target population being able to take part if selected.

Need access to all names of people in the target population.

What is the systematic sampling method?

Selecting every nth participant from the list of available participants.

what are the strengths of systematic sampling? (1)

The only researcher involvement is deciding the sample size, reducing investigator bias.

What are the limitations of systematic sampling? (3)

May not be representative of the population.

Relies on target population being able to take part if selected.

Need to have access to all names of the population.

What is the method of stratified sampling?

Subgroups (strata) within a population are identified. Participants are obtained from each of the strata in proportion to their occurrence in the population. Selection from the strata is done randomly.

What are the strengths of stratified sampling?

By guaranteeing that all the key characteristics of the population are present in the sample, it not only avoids investigator bias afterwards but is also representative of the population therefore can be generalised.

What are the limitations of stratified sampling?

If all key features of the population are not identified the sample may not be representative, limiting generalisability.

Very time consuming to identify subgroups and then select participants randomly.

Need to know all the names of the participants of the target population.

What is opportunity sampling?

Approaching anyone who happens to be in the immediate area and asking them if they would like to participate.

What are the strengths of opportunity sampling? (1)

Less time consuming

What are the limitations of opportunity sampling? (2)

Unlikely to be representative of the target population as the sample is being taken from a small part of the target population

the researcher may consciously or unconsciously show bias in the sample in the sample selection, limiting generalisability. 

What is volunteer sampling?

Advertisements used to attract participants, who then volunteer themselves.

What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?

Easy method with less initial work.

What are the limitations of volunteer sampling?

Sample bias is likely as only certain types of people are likely to volunteer.

What is a naturalistic observation?

An observational technique where behaviour is observed in its natural context, without intrusion by the person doing the observing. There is no direct manipulation of variables. The emphasis is on how people behave in natural settings.

What are the strengths of naturalistic observations? (2)

1) High ecological validity - as ppts are unaware of observation and are behaving in their natural environment. Less chance of demand characteristics.

2) Behaviour can be studied where variables cannot be manipulated - data can be collected from participants who cannot be tested in other ways e.g. babies and when manipulation is unethical

What are the limitations of naturalistic observations? (2)

1) Observer bias - the observer may see what he or she expects to see. Different observers may see different things, leading to low inter-observer reliability.

2) Lack of control - as no manipulation of variables, replication is impossible 

What is a controlled observation?

Where the researcher attempts to control certain variables. Control can occur within a laboratory.

What are the strengths of a controlled observation? (2)

1) Time saving - It is possible to manipulate the situation and therefore you do not have to wait for desired behaviour to be shown. 

2) Preliminary research - Provides a means of conducting preliminary research to develop new hypothesis for future investigations or may prevent time being wasted in carrying out unrealistic experiments.

What are the limitations of controlled observations? (2)

1) Lower ecological validity - participants may change as they know they are being observed. Therefore, behaviour may not be natural which lowers ecological validity compared to the natural observation

2) Observer bias - The observer may see what hey expect to see. Different observers may see different thing, leading to low inter-observer reliability.

What is a covert observation?

Participants unaware they are being observed.

What is an overt observation?

Participants are aware that their behaviour is being observed.

What is a strength of a covert observation?

High ecological validity as behaviour is more natural as the participants are unaware they're being watched.

What is a limitation of a covert observation?

Ethics may be questionable due to invasion of privacy and lack of informed consent.

What is the strength of an overt observation?

More ethical than covert if informed consent gained.

What is a limitation of an overt observation?

Reduced ecological validity because the participants are aware that they are being watched which may lead to participant reactivity.

What is a participant observation?

The observer becomes part of the group they are studying.

What is a non participant observation?

The researcher remains separate from the group they're studying.

What is a strength of a participant observation?

"Allows the researcher to gain special insight into the behaviour that may only be seen from the ""inside"", increasing the validity of findings."

What is a limitation of a participant observation?

Observer bias, objectivity of findings are affected by being a part of the group.

What is a strength of a non participant observation?

Observer is more likely to be objective, compared to a participant observation.

What is a limitation of a non participant observation?

Data lacks richness compared to a participant observation.

What are behavioural categories?

Involve dividing a target behaviour into a subset of behaviours. Can be done using a behaviour checklist, rating scales, or a coding system.

What are the requirements of behavioural categories?

Objective (not requiring personal interpretation)

Cover all aspects of the behaviour

Mutually exclusive (each behaviour can only fit into one category)

What do appropriate behavioural categories result in?

Provide a clear focus for the researcher and can result n greater reliability. Provide data that is easier to analyse/

What is event sampling?

An observer records target behaviour(s) whenever they occur in a target individual or individual. The observer records the number of times the behaviour occurs on the behavioural checklist.

What is a strength of event sampling?

The observer can record a variety of behaviours that change frequently so behaviours will normally not be missed.

What is a limitation of event sampling?

It can be difficult to accurately record behaviour if too many target behaviours are shown at once or if behaviour changes rapidly which may reduce the validity of the observation.

What is time sampling?

An observer records target behaviour(s) at set time points during a specified period, at specific time intervals the observer may tick the behavioural checklist according to the behaviour shown. Any behaviours occurring between time points are ignored and not recorded.

What is a strength of time sampling?

The observer has time to record what they have seen meaning the observation is easier to manage if a lot of behaviours are occurring throughout set observation time.

What is a limitation of time sampling?

Behaviours that change between time points are missed and not recorded therefore observations may not be representative.

What is self report?

Where the participant gives information to the researcher providing details of own feelings, thoughts, or behaviour. This could involve responding to questions on a questionnaire or during an interview.