Pathophysiology 1

Patho is the study of:

Functional alternations of the body at the mechanical, molecular, and cellular-level.

Most diseases arise at the _____ level.

Cellular level

The largest organelle in the cell is the...

Nucleus

The brain of the cell is the _____.

Nucleus

The ___________ separates the inside of the cell from the outside.

Cell membrane

T/F

Cytoplasm controls osmosis and diffusion.

FALSE, Cell membrane

T/F

Sodium-potassium pump REQUIRES active transport (ATP)

True

Osmosis moves water molecules from ______ to ______ concentration.

Lower to Higher

Diffusion moves substance molecules from ______ to _______ concentration.

Higher to Lower

When a movement of fluid is not controlled by the cell membrane, it typically results in...

Cellular injury/Cellular swelling

What is homeostasis?

Maintaining a stable internal environment

The 3 ways a cell adapts to maintain homeostasis are...

Cell Size, Cell Number, and Cell Type

5 types of cellular adaptation:

1. Atrophy (Size)

2. Hypertrophy (Size)

3. Hyperplasia (Number)

4. Metaplasia (Type)

5. Dysplasia (Type)

Next questions are in a table on slide 5

https://utm.instructure.com/courses/51806/pages/unit-1-the-cell?module_item_id=2043028

_______ is a decrease in cell size.

Is it reversible?

Atrophy

Typically, yes

What cellular adaptation is menopause related to?

Is this type of atrophy reversible?

Atrophy

No

_______ is an increase in cell size.

Hypertrophy

_____ hypertrophy is normal cell growth (I.E. exercise).

_____ hypertrophy is abnormal cell growth (I.E. cardiac hypertrophy).

Physiologic

Pathologic

_______ is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue.

Hyperplasia

_______ is the replacement of one mature cell type by another mature cell type.

Metaplasia

In smokers, the stratified squamous epithelial cells are replaced to accommodate their smoking habit, what kind of adaptation is this?

Metaplasia

________ is often a precursor to cancer.

Dysplasia

_______ can be reversed if the stimulus is removed.

Dysplasia

What is the difference between metaplasia and dysplasia.

Metaplasia carries out cell replacement with mature cells.

Dysplasia carries out cell replacement with immature cells.

______ is the disorganized, uncontrolled growth/division of cells.

What does this process commonly result in?

Neoplasia

Tumors (benign or otherwise)

T/F

Neoplasia can result in malignant growths such as moles.

FALSE

It can, but moles are benign.

T/F

Cell injury can be reversible or irreversible

True

pg. 260 goes over sodium potassium pump, "has good information"

The sodium potassium pump maintains the...

electrochemical gradient

What is the normal ion ratio of a sodium potassium pump?

What processes is this ratio crucial for?

3 Na+ to 2K+

Resting membrane potential, maintaining cell volume, muscle contraction, and regulating nerve transmission.

T/F

Normally, calcium in the cell is high. So the SA pump needs to pump it out.

FALSE, the calcium pumps keep calcium levels very LOW inside the cell.

What can too much calcium in a cell result in?

Since it is toxic, it can result in...

Too much calcium inside thecell = toxic• Arteriosclerosis• Aortic stenosis• Some cancers

What happens if the plasma membrane loses its integrity?

• Cell death due to water entering into and bursting the cell

T/F

Protein synthesis requires ATP

True

T/F

No proteins = altered bodily processes

True

Replication:

Transcription:

Translation:

DNA -> DNA

DNA -> RNA

RNA -> Protein

T/F

Some intracellular accumulations are normal, such as cholesterol instead of fat.

FALSE

Opposite. Check slide 11/30

_____ is diminished oxygen in cells.

Is it reversible?

What process does it lead to?

Hypoxia

Yes, but the window between that and cell death is short.

Anaerobic metabolism, increases lactic acid levels and leads to cell death.

_____ is the imbalance of oxygen supply and demand in cells.

What is it caused by?

Dysoxia

Respiratory and cardiac conditions.

_______ is the imbalance between production of Reactive oxygen levels (ROS, which get too high) and the ability of the body to neutralize by antioxidants.

Oxidative stress

Aerobic metabolism, free radicals to react and damage proteins, DNA, and cell membranes.

_______ are lacerations, falls, and burns.

Physical agents

_______ are drugs, pollutants, and smoking.

Chemical agents

(we skipped on from here)

_________ cells

Vasodialation, promotes anticoagulation, and prevents inflammation.

Results in prothrombic events such as strokes or blood clots.

__________ cell injury is a central event in the development of many diseases. (***said to know)

Endothelial cells

vasohomeostasis.

don't memorize the chart on 13/40

When blood pressure is high (hypertension) what happens?

It creates a strong than normal shearing force on the endothelium, resulting in a potential aneurysm and chronic damage to the vessel wall.

Free radicals come from...

What do they result in?

What does it result in?

Environmental sources such as smoke, or cellular functions.

Vasoconstriction, which results in oxidative stress.

Endothelial injury

* SKIPPED OVER ANGIOTENSIN

When the endothelium is injured, what happens?

Body weakens the ability to regulate blood flow, prevent clotting, control inflammation, and results in the pathogenesis of most major diseases* (know)

T/F

Cell injury can result in cell death but, if the stimulus is removed, the cell can recover (example: fatty liver).

True

_____ is an uncontrolled, pathological process in which a cell bursts and releases its contents, leading to unregulated inflammation at the affected area.

Necrosis often stems from...

Necrosis

Cell injury

T/F

There is no inflammation in apoptosis

True

______ is a normal process in the body that causes programmed cell death.

When regulated, what does it help with?

Apoptosis

Tissue regeneration, hormone depletion, death of immune cells.

T/F

It is a nurses job to educate a patient on interventions to reverse or treat cell injury (***said to know)

True

**said we didn't have to know the chart on 15/30 but yk

Biophysiological traits are...

Inherited

A _____ is a segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or function.

Shape/location?

Gene

Locus on chromosomes

A _____ are different versions or forms of the same gene.

Shape/location?

Allele

Locus on chromosomes

_____ is the fundamental molecule that carries genetic info.

Shape/location?

DNA

Double helix in cell nucleus

______ is a long, organized strand of DNA containing many genes.

Shape/location?

Chromosome

23 pairs in human cell nuclei

_______ are the unique genetic material that makes us unique.

Alleles

A _______ allele carries different traits.

A _______ allele carries the same traits.

Heterozygous

Homozygous

A ______ trait only needs one allele for expression, capital letter.

Dominant

A ______ trait only needs two alleles for expression, lowercase letter.

Recessive

A ______ is heterozygous for a recessive trait.

Carrier

T/F

The mother's x chromosomes determine the gender of offspring.

FALSE

Father's

3 forms of genetic disorders:

1. Chromosomal disorders

• Deviation in structure of number of chromosomes

•Often results in early miscarriage

•Nondisjunction

•

_______ disorders often result in early miscarriages.

Chromosomal disorders

_______ causes an unequal distribution of chromosomes between 2 cells.

What kind of cells have chromosomal abnormalities in quantity?

Nondisjunction

Monosomi cells are missing a chromosome, while trisomi cells have an extra.

Sex-linked disorders are _____ genetic disorders.

Which gender is it more common in?

Single-gene disorders.

Men (x-linked recessive diseases)

In autosomal dominant disorders, how many parents are usually affected?

One

In autosomal recessive disorders, how many parents are usually affected?

Two, but they're unaffected

On slide 20/30, the first square is an autosomal dominant square which showcases a parent with two recessive normal genes and a parent with a dominant gene. 50% chance of affected, 50% normal.

The second square is an autosomal recessive square, self-explanatory.

On 22/30, focus on the key diagnostic features/risk factors instead of the pathophysiology.

*not writing that chart down j go back to it

https://utm.instructure.com/courses/51806/pages/unit-1-the-cell?module_item_id=2043028

T/F

Ehlers-Danlos and Lysosomal Storage Diseases are both recessive gene mutations.

FALSE

They can be either

What is the most common genetic disorder?

Klinefelter syndrome

Homeostasis:

Body adjusts fluids/electrolytes to meet cell needs

Electrolytes dissociate into ions in _______.

Water

The amount of fluid in the body changes how hard the _____ works.

Heart

Fluid balance in the body depends on:

• Kidneys

• Hormones

• Nervous system

osmolarity/osmolality

total solute concentration in a solution

Filtration moves particles across a membrane using _____ instead of ATP.

Main sites?

Pressure

Capillaries and Kidneys

Fluid volume excess causes ______.

What hormone is mainly responsible?

edema.

Aldosterone

ANP

BNP

What do they do?

Atrial natriuretic peptide

Brain Natriuretic Peptide

Released by the heart when there is too much pressure.

Elevated BNP =

Decreased urine osmolality =

Elevated urine osmolality =

Elevated urine specific gravity =

Fluid volume excess

Fluid volume excess

Fluid volume deficit

Fluid volume deficit

Ions are essential for...

Nerves, muscles, fluid balance.

Goal of RAAS?

Increase blood volume -> Increase Blood pressure

T/F

If brain cells swell slowly, typically, the brain can adapt and show little to no symptoms.

True

The _______ is the most at risk organ in hyponatremia.

Brain

What is the most typical cause of hyperatremia?

The body loses more water than sodium.

_____ is the major electron in the body.

Potassium

Insulin and catecholamines both

move potassium into the cell.

Hyperkalemia is most commonly caused by _________ and most commonly affects ______.

kidneys (renal failure), heart muscle.

___% of the body's calcium is found in teeth and bones while ___% is found in the blood.

99%, 1%

KNOW SERUM CALCIUM (8.5-10.5) she said other one isn't gonna be used.

Calcitonin is made by the...

Thyroid gland

Excess PTH results in...

High calcium

T/F

Certain cancers release PTH-like hormones, which can destroy bone or secrete hormones to raise calcium.

True