Philosophy Exam 1

Argument

Any chain of thoughts which reasons (premises) are offered in support of a particular conclusion)- therefore, hence, thus, or so show arguments

Logical Validity

In the best arguments, the truth premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion

Soundness/sound argument

Standard of good reasoning and logically valid (ex. All humans have rights. I am a human, therefore I have rights).

Sufficient Condition

A guarantee or conclusion (antecedent) (ex. Having a child is a sufficient condition of being a parent)

Necessary Condition

A requirement or cause (consequent) (ex. Having some money is a necessary condition of being a millionare)

Biconditional

A claim that supplies necessary and sufficient conditions

Modus ponens

Valid argument- Good argument form and affirms the antecedent (conclusion) (If it is raining, the streets are wet. It is raining, therefore the streets are wet)

Modus Tollens

Valid argument- Good argument form and denies the consequent (cause) (ex. If it rains, the ground gets wet. The ground is not wet, therefore it is not raining)

Hypothetical syllogism

Instances are always valid (ex. If I do not wake up, then I can’t go to work. If I can’t go to work, then I won’t get paid. If I do not wake up, I will not get paid)

Fallacy

Mistake in reasoning (bad argument form)

Formal fallacy

Kind of argument where all of whose instances are logically invalid (affirming the consequent (cause) and denying the antecedent (conclusion))

Denying the antecedent (conclusion)

Formal fallacy- ex. If it is raining the ground is wet. It is not raining; therefore, the ground is not wet (the ground can be wet from other means)

Fallacy of affirming the consequent (cause)

Formal Fallacy- If I am sick, I will feel fatigued, I feel fatigued, so I am sick. (you could feel fatigued from other reasons)

Ad hominen fallacy

Informal Fallacy- When you undermine a position by attacking the person who is advancing it. (Insulting your opponent or dodging something) (you can’t trust what that new kid says about new policies, he is a troublemaker and a jerk)

Appeal to irrelevant emotions

Informal Fallacy- When someone tries to convince you of a claim by playing on your emotions, rather than offering facts and evidence that bear the truth of the claim (A story with strong emotion, blinding you from the relevance of the situation)

Appeal to authority

Informal Fallacy- Relying on authority figures to substantiate a position outside of their area of expertise (A doctor not specialized in a specific area giving advice for that area)

Straw man fallacy

Informal Fallacy- Depicts an opponent’s position in a way that makes it easy to refute, thereby dividing attention from the real position being advanced (Saying your opponent wants to ban all assault weapons means taking away all guns)

Appeal to ignorance

Informal fallacy- Occurs when one things a claim is true/false because it hasn’t been proven true/false. (The number of stars in the universe is even) (Fossil fuels are really destroying the environment)

Hasty generalization

Informal Fallacy- Occurs when some illicitly draws a general lesson from only a handful of cases (All Muslims are terrorists)

Theory of value

Points you toward the good results

Theory of obligation

Makes you do or not do something- What is required, forbidden, or what is permissible (Signing an NDA and making sure you do not expose it)

Consequentialism

Maximize the good and minimize the bad- Must look at the consequences of the action first to know if it is appropriate or not (do the greatest good for the greatest number of people) no exception to this principle

Absolute moral rule

One that is not to be violated under any condition (Doing the greatest good for the greatest number of people)

Moral community

Every person is a member of this community, and it is important to your own right (animals are apart of this community too) (ex. do not test products on animals or humans)

The demandingness objection

Sometimes the actions required to proposed moral obligations are too costly to the agent for the proposed obligation to be truly obligatory. (Giving a homeless person all of your money because they need it, but you need it too)

Supererogatory actions (room for actions that go beyond the call of duty)

Saving someone who is drowning, but you could have drowned saving this lady as well.

The justice objection

Justice says you don’t do something against someone’s will or something that is wrong for the greater good (Kidnap your teacher so the class doesn’t have to take the test)

Hypothetical Imperative

If you want something, then do the action to get it, Good advice (if you want a good grade, study hard)

Categorical imperative

A command- Just do the action or don’t do the action

Perfect duty towards others

1st Formulation: Universality- Tell the truth don’t lie

Perfect duty towards yourself

1st Formulation: Universality- Preserve your life

Imperfect duty to yourself

1st Formulation: Universality- Sometimes I should cultivate my talents, not all the time

Imperfect duty to others

1st Formulation: Universality- Sometimes help others in need