Anthropology Exam #2

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cline

a gradual change in a phenotypic characteristic from one geographic population to the next

life history

timing and details of growth events and development from conception through senescence and death. 

prenatal stage

first stage of life beginning with the zygote in utero, terminating with birth, and involving multiple mitotic events and the differentiation of the body into the appropriate segments and regions

postnatal stage

the second stage of life, beginning with birth, terminating with the shift to the adult stage, and involving substantial increases in height, weight, and brain growth / development 

lactation

the production and secretion of milk from a female mammals mammary glands, providing food source to the females young

adult stage

third stage of life, involving the reproductive years and senescence

stressors

factors that can cause stress in a organism, potentially affecting the bodys proper function and its homeostasis 

intrauterine

within the uterus

growth velocity

the speed with which an organism grows in size, often measure as the amount of growth per year

deciduous dentition

also known as baby teeth or milk teeth, this is the first set of teeth that form in utero and erupt shortly after birth

motor skills

complex movements and actions that require the control of nerves and muscles.  

cognitive abilities

capacities of the brain to percieve, process, and judge information from the surrounding environment

menarche

the onset of menstruation in an adolescent female

sexual dimorphism

difference in a physcal attribute between males and females of a species 

epiphyses

the end portions of long bones; once they fuse to the diaphyses, the bones stop growing longer

diaphyses

middle of a long bone; main mid section / shaft, portions of long bones; each diaphysis contains a medullary cavity

nonmineralized (bone)

bone reduced to its organic componentse

secular trend

a phenotypic change over time due to multiple factors; such trends can be positive (increased height) or negative (decreased height)

aging

the process of maturation

senescence

an organisms biological changes in later adulthood

homeostasis

The maintenance of the internal environment of an organism within an acceptable range.

menopause

The cessation (end) of the menstrual cycle, signifying the end of a female's ability to bear children

osteoporosis

The loss of bone mass, often due to age, causing the bones to become porous, brittle, and easily fractured.

functional adaptations

biological changes that occur during an individual's lifetime, increasing the individual's fitness in the given environment.

homeothermic

maintaining a constant body temperature despite great variations in environmental temperature.

vasodilation

The increase in blood vessels' diameter due to the action of a nerve or of a drug; it can also occur in response to hot temperatures.

Bergmann's rule

The principle that an animal's size is heat-related; smaller bodies are adapted to hot environments, and larger bodies are adapted to cold environments.

Allens rule

The principle that an animal's limb lengths are heat-related; limbs are longer in hot environments and shorter in cold environments.

hypothermia

A condition in which an organism's body temperature falls below the normal range, which may lead to the loss of proper body functions and, eventually, death.

vasoconstriction

The decrease in blood vessels' diameter due to the action of a nerve or of a drug; it can also occur in response to cold temperatures.

(BMR) basal metabolic rate

The rate at which an organism's body, while at rest, expends energy to maintain basic bodily functions; measured by the amount of heat given off per kilogram of body weight.

skin reflectance

The amount of light reflected from the skin that can be measured and used to assess skin color.

melanocytes

Melanin-producing cells located in the skin's epidermis.

(SPF) sun protection factor

The rating calculated by comparing the length of time needed for protected skin to burn to the length of time needed for unprotected skin to burn.

hypoxia

A condition characterized by less than the usual sea-level amount of oxygen in the air or in the body.

anthropometry

Measurement of the human body.

basal metabolic requirement

The minimum amount of energy needed to keep an organism alive.

(TDEE) total daily energy expenditure

The number of calories used by an organism's body during a 24-hour period.

macronutrients

Essential chemical nutrients, including fats, carbohydrates, and proteins, that a body needs to live and to function normally.

micronutrients

Essential substances, such as minerals or vitamins, needed in very small amounts to maintain normal body functioning.

nutrition transition

Change in diet involving a shift from a traditional diet of low-fat foods, cereals, and fiber to a Western diet of high-fat, high-carbohydrate, animal-sourced foods.

hypercholesterolemia

The presence of high levels of cholesterol in an organism's blood; this condition may result from the dietary consumption of foods that promote high cholesterol or through the inheritance of a genetic disorder.

type 2 diabetes

A disease in which the body does not produce enough insulin or the cells do not use the available insulin, causing a buildup of glucose in the cells.

osteoblasts

Cells responsible for bone formation.

bone mass

The density of bone per unit of measure.

osteoclasts

Cells responsible for bone resorption.

Wolffs law

The principle that bone is placed in the direction of functional demand; that is, bone develops where needed and recedes where it is not needed.

arboreal adaptation

Adaptation to life in the trees.

dietary plasticity

The ability of an organism to utilize a wide range of foods in meeting its nutritional requirements.

parental investment

The time and energy parents expend for their offspring's benefit.

opposable thumb

As found in primates, a thumb that can touch each of the four fingertips, enabling a grasping ability.

power grip

A fistlike grip in which the fingers and thumb wrap around an object in opposite directions.

precision grip

A grip in which the tips of the fingers and thumb come together, enabling fine manipulation.

preadaptation

An organism's use of an anatomical feature in a way unrelated to the feature's original function.

nocturnal

Normally awake and active during the night.

diurnal

Normally awake and active during daylight hours.

rhinarium

The naked surface around the nostrils, typically wet in mammals.

dental formula

The numerical description of a species' teeth, listing the number, in one quadrant of the jaws, of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars (in that order).

loph

An enamel ridge connecting cusps on a tooth's surface.

bilophodont (molar)

Having two ridges, as in the lower molars in Eastern Hemisphere monkeys.

Y-5

Hominoids' pattern of lower molar cusps.

tooth comb

Anterior teeth (incisors and canines) that have been tilted forward, creating a scraper.

canine–premolar honing complex

The dental form in which the upper canines are sharpened against the lower third premolars when the jaws are opened and closed.

diastema

A space between two teeth.

sectorial (premolar)

Adapted for cutting.

olfactory bulb

The portion of the anterior brain that processes odor-detection signals.

grade

A group of organisms sharing the same complexity and level of evolution.

primitive characteristics

Characteristics present in multiple species of a group.

derived characteristics

Characteristics present in only one or a few species of a group.

hominins

Humans and humanlike ancestors.

phylogeny

The evolutionary relationships of a group of organisms.

prehensile tail

A tail that acts as a kind of a hand for support in trees; common in Western Hemisphere monkeys.

brachiators

Organisms that move by brachiation, or arm-swinging.

habituate

Undertake the process of accustoming animals to human observers.

polygynous

Pertaining to a social group that includes one adult male, several adult females, and their offspring.

polyandrous

Pertaining to a social group that includes one reproductively active female, several adult males, and their offspring.

monogamous

Pertaining to a social group that includes an adult male, an adult female, and their offspring.

sexual selection

The frequency of traits that change due to the attractiveness of those traits to members of the opposite sex.

infanticide

The killing of a juvenile.

dominance

The ability to intimidate or defeat another individual in a pairwise, or dyadic, encounter.

altruistic

Relating to behavior that benefits others while being disadvantageous to the individual.

prosocial behaviors

Behavior that occurs when people act to benefit others rather than themselves.

kin selection

Natural selection in favor of altruistic behaviors (kind acts with no benefit) that increase the fitness of the donor's relatives.

ethnoprimatology

The study of ecological and cultural interactions between humans and primates.

strata

Layers of rock, representing various periods of deposition.

taphonomy

The study of the deposition of plant or animal remains and the environmental conditions affecting their preservation.

sedimentary rock

Rock formed when the deposition of sediments creates distinct layers, or strata.

eras

Major divisions of geologic time that are divided into periods and further subdivided into epochs.

Paleozoic

The first major era of geologic time, 545–245 mya, during which fish, reptiles, and insects first appeared.

Mesozoic

The second major era of geologic time, 245–66 mya, characterized by the emergence and extinction of dinosaurs.

Cenozoic

The era lasting from 66 mya until the present, encompassing the radiation and proliferation of mammals such as humans and other primates.

epochs

Divisions of periods (which are, in turn, the major divisions of eras) in geologic time.

tectonic

Referring to various structures on Earth's surface, such as the continental plates.

Steno's Law of Superposition

The geologic principle that the lower the stratum, or layer, the older its age; the oldest layers are at the bottom, and the youngest are at the top.

fluorine dating

A relative (chemical) dating method that compares the accumulation of fluorine in animal and human bones from the same site.

chemical dating

Dating methods that use predictable chemical changes that occur over time.

biostratigraphic dating

A relative dating method that uses the associations of fossils in strata to determine each layer's approximate age.

index fossils

Fossils that are from specified time ranges, are found in multiple locations, and can be used to determine the age of associated strata.

cultural dating

Relative dating methods that are based on the time spans of material remains.

dendrochronology

A chronometric dating method that uses a tree-ring count to determine numerical age.