AP Psych Unit 2- Memory, Cognition, Intelligence

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Encoding

Taking information into the memory system

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage- accessing the information

Elaborative Rehearsal

Giving new information meaning or context to remember it better

Maintenance Rehearsal

Simply repeating something to keep it in your mind for now but not long term

Chunking

Organizing items into smaller, more manageable units

Hierarchies

Grouping info into categories and subcategories in order of importance or amount

EX. Animal → Mammal→Dog

Mnemonic Devices

Tools that help encode and retrieve info often using the first letter of each word to be remembered

Method of Loci

When learning new info, associate it with a familiar location and place

Spacing effect

Shows that learning and memory are improved when study sessions are spread out

Massed Practice

Craming everything you need to know into one study session

Distributed Practice

Studying info over several sessions

Serial Position Effect

People tend to recall the first and last items in a list; they forget the middle

Primacy Effect

Remembering the FIRST items in a list or first experiences more clearly

Recency Effect

Remembering the LAST items in a list or the most recent experiences more clearly

Semantic Encoding

Encoding of meaning including the meaning of words

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief, recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Short Term Memory (STM)

Holds about 7 items for about 20 seconds before it is stored and forgotten

Working Memory

A temporary work space that allows your brain to hold onto information in order to use in in the moment

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Holds visual and spatial information; allowing to visualize in our mind

Central Executive

Helps us to focus our attention and complete tasks

Phonological Loop

actively holds and manipulates verbal and auditory language

Long Term Memory (LTM)

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

• Includes knowledge, skills, and experience

Long Term Potential

A long lasting change in the structure or function of neurons to help form memories

Recall

Retrieving the info from your memory

EX. fill in the blank test

Recognition

Identifying the target memory from possible choices

EX. Multiple choice

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of info such as space, time, and well learned info (implicit)

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious info (Explicit)

Deep Processing

Making an effort to make information meaningful so it can be easier to access

(Deep Processing= goal; Elaborative Rehearsal= method)

Shallow Processing

Trying to memorize basic properties or information without meaning

Structural- spelling, the order of words

Phonemic- sounds, pronunciation

Explicit Memory

Memory for information we can intentionally recall

Episodic Memory

Memories for personal events in a specific time and place

EX. your birthday party

Semantic Memory

Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time

• Frontal and temporal lobes

EX. Trivia

Implicit Memory

Automatic, subconscious memory

EX. Riding a bike, knowing the lyrics of a familiar song, dialing a phone, brushing your teeth.

Procedural Memory

Motor skills and habits

• Stored in cerebellum

EX. Skipping, typing, jumping, walking

Prospective Memory

Memory for something you will do in the future

Autobiographical Memory

Personal memories; combines your episodic memories with facts about yourself

HSAM: Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

Very rare; the ability to remember dates and events of your life in great detail

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that helps retrieve information from LTM (mnemonic devices, method of Loci, etc.)

State Dependant Memory

Being in the same state of mind may help memory retrieval (being drunk, stressed, sad)

• Internal

Context Dependent Memory

Being in the same location/situation may help memory retrieval

• External

Mood Congruent Memory

Recalling old experiences that happened when you were in a similar mood

Testing Effect

When you test yourself on information flashcards, quizzes, free recall, practice test) You strengthen the memory and make future retrieval easier (works better than reading over notes)

Interference

When memories block each other from being encoded, stored or achieved properly

Proactive Interference

a NEW MEMORY IS BLOCKED

• Remembering something from the past and not something more recent

Retroactive Interference

AN OLD MEMORY IS BLOCK

• remembering something more recent but not something from the past

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

When you feel that you know a piece of info but just can”t retrieve it

Amnesia

Severe memory loss

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories

• Forgetting everything AFTER an accident

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past

• Forgetting everything BEFORE an accident

Misinformation Effect

When new info affects a previous memory

Source Amnesia

When you remember info but forget where you learned it from

Constructive Memory

When you access a memory it is recreated and can be influenced by new info

• A memory is not played back it is recreated and can be changed

Memory Consolidation

The process of converting short term memories into long term memories

Imagination Inflation

A memory distention where imagining an event increases the likelihood that a person will later believe in the event actually happened

• Often begins in childhood; Mandela Effect

Framing

The way a question is asked can affect a memory

Infantile Amnesia

Inability of adults to recall episodic memories from their first years of life

• Typically before ages 3 to 4 due to underdeveloped hippocampus

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive disorder caused by neuron deterioration; resulting in severe memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes

Cognition

A process that involves thinking, understanding, remembering, problem solving, and communicating

Concept

a mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

what you consider the BEST example of a category

Assimilation

Adding new information into an existing schema

Accomodation

Creating a new schema to correctly categorized info

Executive Functions

High level of cognitive skills including planning, impulse control, and problem solving

Algorithm

A logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution is done correctly

EX. The quadratic formula

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make judgements

Representative Heuristic

Decisions made due to prior expectations or stereotypes

Availability Heuristic

decisions made due to what comes to mind first

Mental Set

The tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has previously worked

Priming

When previously encountered information influences future information processing; often unconsciously

Gambler’s Fallacy

the belief that the likelihood of a random event can be influenced by previous outcomes

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

The hesitation to change a behavior because you have already invested energy, time or money

Functional Fixedness

Not seeing other uses for an item

Convergent Thinking

Believing there is only one way to complete a task or solve a problem

Creativity

The ability to come up with unique ideas

Divergent Thinking

Thinking of many different solutions to a problem