PAPER 1 CAUB

Schema Theory

Cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information, influencing memory and perception.

Reconstructive Memory

The process of remembering as an active reconstruction of past events influenced by existing knowledge and schemas, rather than a passive retrieval of stored information.

Assimilation

Altering new information to fit existing cultural norms or schemas, often changing unfamiliar elements to be more consistent with one's own cultural understanding.

Levelling

The process of omitting unimportant or unfamiliar details from a memory, resulting in a shorter and simpler recollection.

Sharpening

Adding detail and changing a story’s structure to make it more coherent and culturally relevant.

Anchoring Bias

A cognitive bias where individuals rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions, even if it is irrelevant.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb used in decision-making and problem-solving to simplify complex tasks.

System 1 Thinking (Intuitive)

Fast, automatic, and emotional thinking, often based on heuristics and prone to biases.

System 2 Thinking (Rational)

Slow, effortful, and logical thinking, used for more deliberate and analytical decision-making.

Dual Processing Model

A theory of thinking that involves two systems: System 1 (intuitive) and System 2 (rational), which influence how we make decisions and judgments.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to better recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a list.

Primacy Effect

Improved recall of items at the beginning of a list, linked to long-term memory through rehearsal.

Recency Effect

Improved recall of items at the end of a list, linked to short-term memory.

Multi-Store Model (MSM)

A cognitive theory proposing separate memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

Working Memory Model (WMM)

An advanced version of short-term memory, consisting of multiple subsystems, unlike the single-store model in the Multi-Store Model.

Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It consists of the phonological store and the articulatory control process.

Articulatory Suppression

A technique used to disrupt the phonological loop by requiring participants to repeat irrelevant sounds, thus preventing rehearsal of verbal information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Handles visual and spatial information, such as navigating or visualizing objects.

Central Executive

Coordinates the activities of other working memory components and manages cognitive resources. (WMM)

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into a coherent episode.

Flashbulb Memory

A highly detailed and vivid memory of emotionally significant events.

Amygdala Activation

Increased neural activity in the amygdala, a brain region involved in emotional processing and memory.

Ecological Validity

The extent to which the findings of a research study are applicable to real-world settings.

Psychological Harm

Emotional distress caused by recalling traumatic events.

Informed Consent

Participants’ agreement to participate after being fully informed of the study.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature and purpose of a study after it ends, especially important if deception was used.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in acquiring and processing information, such as perception, memory, judgment, and decision-making.

Bartlet (1932) Aim

To investigate how memory of an unfamiliar story is affected by cultural schemas and prior knowledge, and to explore whether memory is reconstructive in nature.

Bartlet (1932) Procedure

• British participants were told a Native American legend called “The War of the Ghosts”. The story contained unfamiliar concepts, names, and structures to the British culture.

• Participants were placed in one of two conditions:

- Repeated Reproduction: Participants recalled the story multiple times over days, weeks, months, or even years.

- Serial Reproduction: The story was passed from one participant to another, each recalling it in turn.

• No participants were told the purpose of the experiment or instructed to remember the story accurately.

Bartlet (1932) Findings

• Participants distorted the story in systematic ways to fit their cultural schemas.

• Three types of distortion were observed:

1. Assimilation: Unfamiliar elements were changed to make the story more consistent with British norms (e.g., “canoe” became “boat”).

2. Levelling: The story became shorter as unimportant or unfamiliar details were omitted.

3. Sharpening: Participants added detail and changed the story’s structure to make it more coherent and culturally relevant.

• Despite these distortions, the main theme of the story was often retained.

Bartlet (1932) Conclusion

Memory is not a faithful reproduction of experience, but a reconstruction based on existing knowledge and schemas. This supports the idea that memory is an active, reconstructive process, not a passive retrieval of objective information. The distortions show how prior cultural knowledge influences recall.

Englich & Mussweiler (2001) Aim

To investigate whether judges’ sentencing decisions would be influenced by an arbitrary numerical anchor, specifically, a prosecutor’s recommended sentence, demonstrating the anchoring bias in a real-world professional setting

Englich & Mussweiler (2001) Procedure

• Participants: 19 young trial judges (15 males, 4 females), average age ~29, with about 9 months of courtroom experience.

• Design: Independent samples design. All participants read the same rape case, but were randomly assigned to one of two groups:

- Low Anchor Group: Told the prosecutor recommended 2 months of prison time.

- High Anchor Group: Told the prosecutor recommended 34 months.

• After reading the case and forming an opinion (within ~15 minutes), judges answered a questionnaire with the following:

1. Was the prosecutor’s demand too low, adequate, or too high?

2. What sentence would you recommend?

3. How certain are you in your sentencing decision? (1–9)

4. How realistic is the case? (1–9)

• A pilot study using 24 senior law students confirmed the average recommended sentence was ~17 months, ensuring the anchors were deliberately high and low.

Englich & Mussweiler (2001) Findings

• Judges in the low anchor condition (2 months) recommended an average of 18.78 months (SD = 9.11).

• Judges in the high anchor condition (34 months) recommended an average of 28.70 months (SD = 6.53).

• This statistically significant difference demonstrated that the judges were unduly influenced by the prosecutor’s suggestion, despite having access to the penal code and forming independent opinions.

• Certainty ratings were high (~7/9), showing confidence despite biased outcomes.

Englich & Mussweiler (2001) Conclusion

The study demonstrates the effect of anchoring bias—a heuristic used in System 1 thinking— on legal professionals, who are expected to rely more on deliberate, System 2 reasoning. Even trained judges were influenced by arbitrary numerical anchors, suggesting that intuitive cognitive biases can significantly affect decision-making. The findings support both the existence of heuristics and the Dual Processing Model, highlighting the tension between intuitive and rational thinking in real-life decisions.

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966, Study 2) Aim

To investigate whether the recency effect in the serial position curve is due to words still being held in short-term memory (STM), as proposed by the Multi-store Model of Memory.

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966, Study 2) Procedure

• 46 army-enlisted men participated in a repeated measures design.

• Each participant was shown 15 lists of 15 common one-syllable words via a projector (1 word per second, 2-second interval).

• After each list, participants experienced one of three conditions:

1. Immediate recall2. Delayed recall with 10 seconds of counting backwards (distractor task)

3. Delayed recall with 30 seconds of counting

• After the delay (or immediately), they were told to write down as many words as they could recall in any order (free recall).

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966, Study 2) Findings

• In the immediate recall condition, both primacy and recency effects were observed, forming the classic serial position curve.

• In the 10-second delay, the recency effect was significantly reduced.

• In the 30-second delay, the recency effect disappeared completely, showing “no trace.”

• The primacy effect remained in all conditions, indicating transfer of early items to long-term memory (LTM) through rehearsal

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966, Study 2) Conclusion

This study supports the Multi-store Model, demonstrating that STM and LTM are separate memory stores. The recency effect is tied to STM, which fades without rehearsal, while the primacy effect relies on LTM via acoustic rehearsal.

Landry & Bartling (2011) Aim

To investigate whether articulatory suppression (repeating irrelevant sounds) would impair the phonological loop in the Working Memory Model (WMM), thus affecting serial recall of phonologically dissimilar letters.

Landry & Bartling (2011) Procedure

The study used an independent samples design with 34 university students tested individually.

Participants were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group.

• The control group was shown lists of 7 dissimilar letters (e.g., F, K, L, M, R, X, Q) for five seconds and asked to recall the letters in order after a five-second delay.

• The experimental group performed the same task while simultaneously repeating “1, 2” at a rate of two numbers per second (articulatory suppression task), preventing rehearsal in the phonological loop.

• Each group completed ten trials, and accuracy was scored by letter order.

Landry & Bartling (2011) Findings

The control group had a mean recall accuracy of 76%, whereas the experimental group scored significantly lower at 45%. A t-test confirmed the difference was statistically significant (p ≤ 0.01).

Landry & Bartling (2011) Conclusion

This supports the Working Memory Model, showing that interference in the phonological loop (through articulatory suppression) impairs verbal rehearsal and short-term memory performance

Short-term Memory (STM)

A limited-capacity store that holds information briefly unless rehearsed.

Long-term memory (LTM)

A theoretically unlimited and permanent memory store.

Rehearsal

The cognitive process of repeating information to encode it into LTM.

Free Recall

Remembering items in any order without cues.

Explain one model of memory with reference to one study - Link

• Glanzer & Cunitz provide empirical support for the Multi-store Model by showing that delays disrupt the recency effect (STM) but not the primacy effect (LTM), suggesting separate memory systems.

• The use of a distractor task demonstrates how STM fades over time without rehearsal, aligning with the MSM’s assumptions about duration limits of STM

Repeated reproduction

A method used in memory studies where participants recall information multiple times over a period, showing how memory can change and be reconstructed.

Serial Reproduction

A method where information is passed from one person to another, like in a game of telephone.

Explain schema theory with reference to one study - Link

Bartlett’s study supports schema theory by showing how participants’ memories were systematically distorted by their existing cultural schemas, providing evidence that memory is reconstructive. This demonstrates how schema theory helps explain the influence of past knowledge on the way new information is encoded and retrieved.

Cognitive Bias

Systematic errors in thinking that affect decisions and judgments.

Explain one model of thinking and decision making with reference to one study - Link

• Englich & Mussweiler demonstrates the anchoring bias at work: judges made different sentencing decisions based on arbitrary anchors (2 vs. 34 months).

• Despite being trained legal professionals, judges relied on System 1 thinking, showing that cognitive biases can override rational System 2 processing.

• This supports the Dual Processing Model and shows how heuristics influence decision-making, even in expert populations.

Emotional Arousal

Emotional intensity that affects memory encoding and retrieval.

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of one cognitive process - Link

Sharot et al.’s study on flashbulb memory and emotion highlights ethical considerations related to psychological harm, as participants were exposed to emotionally distressing memories of the 9/11 attacks. This raises concerns about the balance between gaining scientific insights into memory recall and ensuring participants’ mental well-being.

Experiment

A method where researchers manipulate an independent variable (IV) and measure its effect on a dependent variable (DV) while controlling extraneous variables. Can be conducted in a lab, field, or natural setting.

Cognition

Mental processes such as memory, attention, language, and decision-making.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A non-invasive imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. fMRI allows researchers to observe brain function and identify areas involved in cognitive processes.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of one cognitive process

• Sharot et al. used a quasi-experimental design, as the IV (location during 9/11) was naturally occurring and not manipulated. However, they used controlled conditions and fMRI scans to measure the biological effects of emotion on memory, making it suitable for examining how emotional arousal (fear, trauma) influenced brain activity and memory reliability.

• The use of this experimental method allowed researchers to explore a cause-and-effect relationship between emotion and cognition while maintaining ecological validity by studying real-world memories.

Phonological Store

A passive part of the phonological loop that briefly holds verbal information. (WMM)

Articulatory Control System

The active part of the phonological loop that rehearse and refreshes verbal information (the “inner voice”).

Cognitive Load

The mental effort required for a task; increased by articulatory suppression, impacting recall accuracy.

Explain the working memory model with reference to one study - Link

Landry and Bartling’s study specifically investigates how articulatory suppression disrupts the phonological loop of the WMM. By showing that participants in the suppression condition had reduced recall accuracy compared to the control group, the study provides empirical evidence for the phonological loop’s role in short-term memory and supports the WMM’s claim that this loop is essential for verbal information processing and rehearsal.

Distractor Task

A task (e.g., counting backward) used to prevent rehearsal and disrupt STM.

Explain the Multi-Store Memory Model with reference to one study - Link

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) provide strong empirical support for the Multi-Store Memory Model by showing that STM and LTM operate separately and follow different mechanisms (e.g., STM decays without rehearsal, while LTM is strengthened by rehearsal). The loss of the recency effect under delay confirms that STM is time-sensitive, while the persistence of the primacy effect highlights the role of rehearsal in transferring information to LTM, aligning with the MSM’s structure

Episodic memory

A type of memory that includes details about specific events and the context in which they occurred (e.g., sights, emotions).

Confabulation

A memory error in which gaps are unconsciously filled with distorted or fabricated information, often with high confidence.

Explain reconstructive memory with reference to one study - Link

• Bartlett’s study demonstrates how reconstructive memory works by showing that people recalled unfamiliar information in a way that made it fit their existing schemas.

• This supports the theory that memory is not a passive retrieval of facts, but an active reconstruction, shaped by culture and experience.

Thinking

The process of using mental strategies to form judgments, reason, and make decisions.

Descision-Making

Choosing between alternatives, often under uncertainty.

Explain one bias in thinking and decision making with reference to one study - Link

Englich and Mussweiler’s study clearly demonstrates the anchoring bias in a real-world setting, showing that even trained judges can be influenced by irrelevant numerical suggestions when making decisions, supporting the claim that thinking and decision-making are subject to cognitive biases.

Localization of function

The idea that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific cognitive processes.

Explain one study on the influence of emotion on cognitive processes - Link

Sharot et al. (2007) supports the idea that emotion enhances memory by activating the amygdala, which helps form vivid, long-lasting flashbulb memories—demonstrating how emotion can influence cognitive processes like memory

Reliability of cognitive processes

Refers to the accuracy and consistency of cognitive functions like memory recall.

Ecological Validity

The low ecological validity of the study is significant because the laboratory setting and the artificial task of recalling a culturally unfamiliar story do not reflect real-life memory processes, limiting the generalizability of the findings.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of reliability of cognitive processes - Link

• Bartlett’s use of a laboratory experiment allowed him to control the conditions under which participants recalled the story, enabling a systematic investigation of how pre-existing cultural schemas influenced memory.

• This method was effective for studying reconstructive memory because it isolated memory as the variable of interest while observing naturalistic distortions through qualitative analysis, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of experimental control when examining the reliability of cognitive processes.

Ethical considerations

Principles that ensure the safety, rights, and well-being of participants in psychological research. Common considerations include informed consent, anonymity, right to withdraw, deception, protection from harm, and debriefing.

Deception

A necessary ethical issue in some studies where researchers deliberately mislead participants to avoid demand characteristics or ensure natural behavior. Ethical as long as it is justified, not harmful, and followed by debriefing.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature and purpose of a study after it ends, especially important if deception was used.

Explain ONE ethical consideration of one study in the reliability of cognitive processes - Link

• Englich and Mussweiler’s study highlights how the ethical use of deception—followed by proper debriefing—can enable researchers to study reliable patterns of bias in decision- making.

• In this case, the deception allowed for natural judgments and provided insights into how anchoring can reduce the reliability of cognitive processes in real-world settings like courtrooms, without compromising participants’ well-being.

Explain one ethical consideration in the study of the effect on emotion on cognition - Link

• Sharot et al.’s study on flashbulb memory and emotion highlights ethical considerations related to psychological harm, as participants were exposed to emotionally distressing memories of the 9/11 attacks.

• This raises concerns about the balance between gaining scientific insights into memory recall and ensuring participants’ mental well-being.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of the effect of emotion on cognition - Link

• Sharot et al. used a quasi-experimental design, as the IV (location during 9/11) was naturally occurring and not manipulated.

• However, they used controlled conditions and fMRI scans to measure the biological effects of emotion on memory, making it suitable for examining how emotional arousal (fear, trauma) influenced brain activity and memory reliability.

• The use of this experimental method allowed researchers to explore a cause-and-effect relationship between emotion and cognition while maintaining ecological validity by studying real-world memories.

Explain one study of intuitive/rational thinking - Link

• Englich & Mussweiler (2001) illustrates how intuitive thinking (System 1) can lead to biased judgments even in professional contexts like legal sentencing. The participants, relying on the anchoring heuristic, made decisions based on irrelevant numerical suggestions rather than deliberate reasoning.

• This supports the dual process model, as it shows how intuitive processes can override rational, analytical thought (System 2), especially under uncertainty or time constraints.

Bartlet (1932) – “War of Ghosts” Themes

Schema Theory, Reconstructive memory, Ethical considerations, Research methods

Englich & Mussweiler (2001) – Anchoring Bias & Judicial Decision-Making themes

Bias in thinking, Model of decision-making (heuristics), Intuitive/rational thinking

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966, Study 2) – Serial Position Effect Themes

Multi-store memory model, Research method (lab experiment)

Landry & Bartling (2011) – Articulatory Suppression Themes

Working memory model, Model of memory, Research methods,

Sharot et al. (2007) – Flashbulb Memory & 9/11 Themes

Emotion and memory, Ethical considerations, Research methods

Sharot et al. (2007) Aim

To investigate how emotion influences memory recall, particularly in the formation of flashbulb memories—vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

Sharot et al. (2007) Procedure

The researchers conducted a quasi-experiment using 24 participants who were in New York during the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Participants were placed in an fMRI scanner and shown word cues associated with either 9/11 (“September”) or neutral events (“Summer”) to trigger autobiographical memories. While recalling these events, their brain activity was recorded. After scanning, participants rated their memories for vividness, emotional arousal, confidence, and detail, and provided written descriptions. The participants were grouped based on how close they had been to the World Trade Center on 9/11.

Sharot et al. (2007) Findings

Only half the participants reported flashbulb memories for 9/11, characterized by high confidence, vividness, and detail. These individuals had been closer to the event and showed higher amygdala activation during recall. In contrast, those further from the event had no significant difference in amygdala activation between summer and 9/11 memories. This supports the idea that emotionally charged experiences enhance memory through biological mechanisms and demonstrates how emotion influences cognitive processes, such as memory retrieval.

Sharot et al. (2007) Conclusion

This study supports the cognitive theory that emotion strengthens memory encoding and retrieval, specifically in flashbulb memories. It provides evidence that emotional arousal enhances memory vividness, demonstrating how emotion affects cognitive processes such as memory.