Language Change Paper2

Prescriptivist

\-Like rules that identify 'correct' language use

\-Disapprove of language use that breaks the rules

\-Do not label specific uses of language as 'correct' or 'incorrect'

Affixation

adding a prefix or suffix to a word

back formation

A verb is created from an existing noun

Blending

words are abbreviated and joined to form new words

Borrowing

taking words from other languages

Clipping

A new word created by shortening an existing one

Compounding

Words combined together to form new words

eponym

Names of a person or company are used to define particular subject

Initialism

Sounded as the initials of the word

neologism

new word or expression

Standardisation

process of becoming a standard language

change from above

change decided by those in a dominant position

change from below

driven by language users to suit their own needs

external change

external pressure such as cultural or technological change affect how language is used

internal change

aspects of language contribute to change

broadening

retains old meaning but takes an added meaning

Narrowing

A word becomes more specific in its meaning

Amelioration

changes meaning to be more positive

pejoration

changes meaning to become less favourable

weakening

lose original force of the word over time

metaphor

words acquiring new meanings

idioms

new meanings created within a phrase

polysemy

the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or phrase

euphemism

An indirect

Christopher Werry

In internet chat

Gretchen McCulloch

People online are socially influenced by others and enjoy participating in things they recognise. Also the internet has led to a rise in socialising via writing.

Semantic Change Example: Gay

1860s= joyous

1970s= lively

1980s= promiscuous

2000s = same-sex

orthographical change

Spelling reforms have been occurring in English throughout standardisation process

David Crystal - Descriptivist

"You cannot stop language change. You may not like it; you may regret the arrival of new forms and passing of old ones"

"Language change is as natural as breathing"

Gretchen McCulloch - Descriptivist

"Language is humanity's most spectacular open source project" "Vast laboratory of unedited unfiltered words where we can watch language evolve in real time"

Otto Jespersen - 1922 - Descriptivist

"Something that is not always consistent or perfect but progressing and perfectible - in one word

John Humphreys - Prescriptivist

Texting: "They are destroying it: Pillaging our punctuation; Savaging our sentences; Raping our vocabulary"

Lynn Truss - Prescriptivist

author of 'Eats

Donald McKinnon 1996

\-Formed a model of binary opposites that Can be applied to Change

* Language use as correct or In correct
* Language use as pleasant or ugly
* Language examples as socially acceptable or unacceptable
* Language examples as morally acceptable or unacceptable
* Language examples as appropriate or inappropriate
* Language examples as useful or useless

Robert Lane Greene - Descriptivist

\-declinism: view that English is in an irreversible decline from a great peak. This is incorrect as language has never been perfect and most rules are arbitrary.

\-sticklerism: tendency to connect others in language. Version of classism.

\-complaint tradition: MILROY - tradition of complaining about the decline of language

Sharon Goodman - Informalisation 1996

\-She notes that we are living in a time of increased informalisation = process whereby language forms that were traditionally reserved for close personal relationships are now used in wider social contexts. -Referring to Fairclough she says: "professional encounters are increasingly likely to contain informal forms of English" - what Fairclough termed "conversationalised" Informalisation in some contexts breaks down barriers between 'them' and 'us'

Standardisation stages - Haugen

1. Selection of East Midlands dialect
2. Elaboration of this dialect where is became prestige
3. Codification of this form : written rules and agreeing norms
4. Implementation of the form - language controlled through books/pamphlets

Crumbling Castle

View holds that English language is like a beautiful stately home that should be preserved

Damp Spoon

Language change is lazy. This metaphor is similar to leaving a wet spoon in the sugar. Aitchinson disagrees with this and believes the only lazy language is alcohol because of the difficulty in articulation.

infectious disease

View that language is spread and caught like an illness and we should fight them off.

Philip Hensher (2002)

-Highlighted complexity of the situation that people in a group can call each other names e.g. N-word

Philip Howard (1977)

"The revolving cycle of euphemism has turned full circle in the US - black has become acceptable

Harvey and Shalom (1997)

A problem area in language is often identified by the fact that there are lots of variations of a concept

E.G. Technical - sexual intercourse = fornication

Euphemistic - go to bed = sleep with

Dysphemistic - f\*ck = shag

Dysphemism

An expression with derogatory connotation either about the subject matter or to audience. Problem area is identified by effects of use and contexts.

Determinism

Language determines thought. Therefore restricting the n-word will reduce racism. Words we possess determine things that we know.

Reflectionism

Language reflects thought. Therefore restricting the n-word will have no impact as racist thoughts still exist. Words reflect knowledge. Therefore changing words will not affect the way we think.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Influential study based on Native American languages.

'Strong' version - language precedes thoughts and controls it. Human thought is only possible through language. We can only think things because we have the language to explain. 'Weak' version - more useable: language can only influence thought but does not completely control it. Many thinkers have urged that large differences in language lead to large differences in experience. Speakers of different languages think about the world in quite different ways.

Linguistic Relativity

The idea that language shapes our thinking but does not completely control it.

Spender (1980)

Man made language

political correctness

avoidance of expressions or actions that can be perceived to exclude or marginalize or insult people who are socially disadvantaged or discriminated against.

Peter Hitchens

"What Americans describe within the casual phrase 'PC' is the most intolerant system of thought to dominate British Isles since the reformation"

Deborah Cameron

Criticises the movement as ultimately self-defeating: "in the mouths of sexists