Philosophy of Religion

What does philosophy of religion study?

The existence and nature of God, justification of religious belief, faith vs. reason, and the problem of evil.

What is monotheism?

The belief that one God created and sustains the world while transcending it.

What is polytheism?

The belief in many gods.

What is pantheism?

The belief that God is identical with the universe.

What are the three main positions on God's existence?

Theism, atheism, agnosticism.

What is a theist?

Someone who believes God exists.

What is an atheist?

Someone who believes God does not exist.

What is an agnostic?

Someone who believes there is insufficient evidence to know whether God exists.

What is evidentialism?

The view that belief in God must be supported by objective evidence.

What is non-evidentialism?

The view that belief in God does not require objective evidence.

What is natural theology?

The project of proving God's existence using reason and experience alone.

Who uses natural theology?

Evidentialist theists.

What is fideism?

The view that religious belief must be based on faith alone and not evidence.

How does a fideist differ from a theistic evidentialist?

Fideists reject evidence; theistic evidentialists rely on it.

What is the cosmological argument?

An argument for God based on causation or contingency.

How does the cosmological argument work?

Contingent beings exist → they need a cause → there must be a necessary being → God.

What is the Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR)?

Everything that exists has an explanation for why it exists.

What is a contingent being?

A being whose existence depends on something else.

What is a necessary being?

A being that contains the reason for its existence within itself.

Who used the cosmological argument?

Aquinas and Leibniz.

What are three criticisms of the cosmological argument?

Infinite regress may be possible; the universe could be necessary; God may also need a cause.

What is the teleological argument?

The argument for God based on design in the universe.

How does the teleological argument work?

The universe shows order → order implies design → design implies a designer → God.

Who used the teleological argument?

William Paley.

Who critiqued the teleological argument?

David Hume (through the character Philo).

What is one of Hume's critiques?

The universe is not sufficiently like a machine for the analogy to work.

What are Philo's two strategies against the teleological argument?

Attack the analogy; propose alternative explanations.

What is the ontological argument?

An argument for God based on the concept of God alone.

How does Anselm's ontological argument work?

God is the greatest conceivable being; existence is greater than nonexistence; therefore God exists.

Who criticized the ontological argument?

Gaunilo and Kant.

What was Gaunilo's criticism?

You cannot define something into existence.

What was Kant's criticism?

Existence is not a predicate (not a property).

What are the two main criticisms of the ontological argument?

Concepts don't guarantee existence; existence is not a property.

What is the project of non-evidentialism?

Justifying belief in God without objective proof.

Who are the three major non-evidentialists?

Pascal, William James, Kierkegaard.

Who was Blaise Pascal?

A philosopher who argued belief in God is rational due to potential infinite gain.

What is Pascal's Wager?

It is safer to believe in God because the possible reward outweighs the risk.

Who was William James?

A philosopher who argued belief can be justified without evidence in certain cases.

What is a momentous belief?

A belief that is significant, irreversible, and life-altering.

Who was W. K. Clifford?

A philosopher who argued belief without evidence is immoral.

Why did James disagree with Clifford?

James argued some beliefs must be made without sufficient evidence.

Who was Søren Kierkegaard?

A philosopher who emphasized subjective faith and personal commitment.

How did Kierkegaard view objective truth?

Objective proof cannot justify religious belief; faith is subjective.

What is the problem of evil?

The challenge of reconciling evil with an all-good, all-powerful God.

What is moral evil?

Evil caused by human actions.

What is natural evil?

Suffering caused by natural events like disease or disasters.

What is a theodicy?

An attempt to justify God's allowing evil.

What is the greater goods defense?

God allows evil to bring about a greater good.

Who was John Hick?

A philosopher who defended the soul-making version of the greater goods defense.

What is the free will defense?

God allows evil because free will makes love and morality possible.

What are two criticisms of the free will defense?

Doesn't explain natural evil; God could limit extreme suffering.

Who was C. S. Lewis?

A Christian philosopher who argued evil results from free will.