U.S. Constitutional Foundations and Early Political History

James Madison

"Father of the Constitution," author of many Federalist Papers, and 4th U.S. president.

Alexander Hamilton

First Secretary of the Treasury, Federalist leader, and key author of The Federalist Papers.

Gouverneur Morris

Delegate at the Constitutional Convention; wrote much of the Constitution's final draft.

John Dickinson

Moderate delegate at the Constitutional Convention; helped draft the Articles of Confederation.

Federalists

Supporters of the Constitution and strong central government.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution; favored states' rights and demanded a Bill of Rights.

The Federalist Papers

Essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay promoting ratification of the Constitution.

Constitutional Convention

1787 meeting in Philadelphia where the U.S. Constitution was written.

Federalism

Division of power between national and state governments.

Separation of powers

Government power divided into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and balances

Each branch of government can limit the others to prevent abuse of power.

Congress

The legislative branch of the U.S., made of the Senate and House of Representatives.

Virginia Plan

Proposal for representation in Congress based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposal for equal representation in Congress regardless of population.

Great Compromise

Agreement creating a bicameral legislature: Senate (equal) + House (population).

Senate

Upper house of Congress; each state has 2 senators.

House of Representatives

Lower house of Congress; representation based on population.

3/5ths Compromise

Counted enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for taxation and representation.

Commercial Compromise

Allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign trade but not tax exports.

Electoral College

System used to elect the president based on state electors.

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments to the Constitution guaranteeing individual freedoms.

Amendments

Formal changes or additions to the Constitution.

National bank

Proposed by Hamilton to stabilize U.S. economy and manage debt.

Cabinet

Advisors to the president, leading executive departments.

Supreme Court

Highest U.S. court with final authority on constitutional issues.

Judiciary Act of 1789

Law that organized the federal court system.

National debt issue

Huge debt after the Revolution; Hamilton's plan included assumption and repayment.

Federalist Party

Political party led by Hamilton; favored strong central government.

Democratic-Republican Party

Political party led by Jefferson; favored states' rights and limited government.

Washington's Farewell Address

Warned against political parties and foreign alliances.

Alien & Sedition Acts

Laws restricting immigrants and limiting criticism of the government (1798).

Kentucky & Virginia Resolutions

State laws declaring the Alien & Sedition Acts unconstitutional; introduced nullification.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

1794 U.S. victory over Native tribes in Ohio, leading to land cessions.

Treaty of Greenville

1795 treaty where Native Americans ceded much of Ohio after defeat.

Public Land Act (1796)

Allowed the sale of federal lands to fund government and encourage settlement.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

Washington's policy keeping the U.S. out of European wars.

Citizen Genêt

French diplomat who tried to recruit Americans to fight Britain, angering Washington.

Pinckney Treaty (1795)

Treaty with Spain giving Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River.

Right of Deposit

U.S. right to store goods tax-free in New Orleans (granted by Spain).

XYZ Affair

1797 scandal where French officials demanded bribes from U.S. diplomats.

Charles Wilson Peale

Charles Willson Peale is best remembered for his monumental portraits of George Washington and other Revolutionary War--era figures, and for organizing and opening America's first natural history and art museums in Baltimore and Philadelphia.

Pierre-Charles l'Enfant

Pierre Charles L'Enfant was an engineer, architect and city planner who served in the Continental Army during the American Revolution

Gilbert Stuart

an American painter known for his portraits of George Washington, including the iconic unfinished portrait that served as the basis for the image on the U.S. one-dollar bill.

Northwest Ordinance

A significant legislation passed in 1787 that established a framework for governing the Northwest Territory, promoting orderly expansion and the admission of new states.

Indian Intercourse Act

A series of laws regulating trade and interaction between Native American tribes and non-Native settlers, aimed at protecting native land rights.

Eli Whitney

An American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin, a device that revolutionized the cotton industry and significantly impacted the economy of the Southern United States.

cotton gin

A machine that efficiently separates cotton fibers from seeds, greatly increasing productivity in cotton processing.