Everything

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Empiricism

Knowledge comes from experience and observation.

Structuralism

Early school focused on breaking the mind into basic elements (Wundt, Titchener).

Functionalism

Focused on how mental and behavioral processes function to help us adapt (James).

Behaviorism

Psychology should study only observable behavior (Watson, Skinner).

Humanistic psychology

Emphasized human growth potential (Rogers, Maslow).

Cognitive psychology

Study of mental processes such as perception, thinking, and memory.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over whether genetics or environment shape behavior more.

Biopsychosocial approach

Integrates biological, psychological, and social influences.

Critical thinking

Evaluating evidence and assumptions logically.

Theory

An explanation using principles that organizes and predicts behavior/events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Operational definition

A statement of procedures used to define variables.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm findings.

Case study

Examining one person or group in depth.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without interference.

Survey

A method of gathering self-reported data from many people.

Population

All those in a group being studied.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population.

Correlation

A measure of how two variables relate.

Positive correlation

Both variables increase together.

Negative correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

Correlation coefficient (r)

Statistical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship.

Illusory correlation

Belief in a relationship where none exists.

Experiment

Research method that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.

Independent variable

The factor that is manipulated.

Dependent variable

The outcome measured.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to control for bias.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the IV that may affect results.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who receives treatment.

Mean

Average score.

Median

Middle score.

Mode

Most frequent score.

Standard deviation

Measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

Statistical significance

Likelihood that a result is not due to chance.

Neuron

Nerve cell; basic unit of the nervous system.

Dendrite

Receives messages from other neurons.

Axon

Sends messages to other neurons.

Myelin sheath

Fatty layer that speeds up neural transmission.

Action potential

Electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

Synapse

Junction between neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.

Dopamine

Affects movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, and sleep.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle movement and memory.

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal.

Endorphins

Natural opiates that ease pain and boost pleasure.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Sensory and motor neurons connecting CNS to body.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movement.

Autonomic nervous system

Controls involuntary functions (heart, digestion).

Sympathetic nervous system

Activates 'fight or flight.'

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body ('rest and digest').

Endocrine system

Slow chemical communication via hormones.

Adrenal glands

Release epinephrine and norepinephrine in stress.

Pituitary gland

Master gland that controls hormone release.

Brainstem

Oldest brain region; controls survival functions.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

Sensory control center.

Cerebellum

Coordinates movement and balance.

Limbic system

Emotion and motivation (includes amygdala, hippocampus).

Amygdala

Involved in emotion and fear.

Hippocampus

Processes memory.

Hypothalamus

Controls hunger, thirst, body temperature.

Cerebral cortex

Outer brain layer for thinking and processing.

Frontal lobe

Planning, judgment, speaking, movement.

Parietal lobe

Sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobe

Visual processing.

Temporal lobe

Auditory processing.

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary movement.

Somatosensory cortex

Registers body touch sensations.

Plasticity

Brain's ability to change by reorganizing after damage.

Corpus callosum

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Split-brain

Condition after cutting corpus callosum; hemispheres act independently.

Consciousness

Awareness of self and environment.

Circadian rhythm

Biological 24-hour body clock.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement; dreaming stage.

NREM-1, NREM-2, NREM-3

Sleep stages from light to deep sleep.

Sleep spindles

Bursts of brain activity in NREM-2.

Delta waves

Large, slow brain waves in deep sleep.

REM rebound

Increased REM after REM deprivation.

Sleep apnea

Temporary stopping of breathing during sleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden sleep attacks.

Insomnia

Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Dreams

Sequences of images and emotions during sleep.

Manifest content

Storyline of a dream.

Latent content

Hidden meaning of a dream (Freud).

Selective attention

Focusing on one stimulus (e.g., cocktail party effect).

Change blindness

Failure to notice environmental changes.

Psychoactive drug

Alters perception, mood, or behavior.

Tolerance

Diminished effect with regular use.

Withdrawal

Discomfort after stopping drug use.

Addiction

Compulsive craving and use.

Depressants

Slow neural activity (alcohol, barbiturates, opiates).

Stimulants

Speed up neural activity (nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines).

Hallucinogens

Distort perceptions (LSD, MDMA).

THC

Active ingredient in marijuana; lingers in body.

Biological influences

Genetic predispositions, dopamine system.