Mary I's Foreign Policy (1553–1558)

Core Aims and Objectives

What were Mary’s three primary foreign policy aims when she came to the throne?

• Religious Restoration: To restore England to papal supremacy

• Strategic Alliance and Dynastic Security: To ally England to the Spanish Habsburgs through friendship with Emperor Charles V and the marriage to Philip II of Spain and to build trade and military links with the strongest Catholic power (Spanish)

• Anti French Stance: Keeping a strong but not assertive anti French rhetoric and have defensive policies against them

What was Mary’s stance towards France?

Maintaining a strong but not assertive anti-French rhetoric and defensive policies against them

What was Mary’s implicit aim regarding succession?

Mary implicitly aimed to secure the succession, preferably by having a child to secure the Catholic revival after her death

The Spanish Marriage (1554)

Why was the marriage to Philip central to Mary’s foreign policy?

The marriage to Philip, son of the powerful Habsburg Emperor Charles V, was the central pillar of Mary’s foreign policy

Why did Mary choose Philip?

Mary chose Philip personally, enhancing her half-Spanish inheritance from her mother, Catherine of Aragon

Who did Mary trust for advice on the marriage?

Mary, who saw herself surrounded by heretics, came to trust the shrewd Imperial ambassador, Simon Renard, and acted on his advice

What did the Habsburg alliance represent?

The Habsburg alliance represented the traditional orientation of English foreign policy

Motivations

When did Philip arrive in England for the marriage and what was a consequence of his absence?

Philip arrived in July 1554 for the marriage and was away for most of the reign, making successful conception difficult

How did Philip exert influence in England?

He exerted influence discreetly through trusted English councillors like Paget, Pembroke, and Arundel

What role did Philip play regarding Cardinal Pole?

Philip helped negotiate the return of Cardinal Pole to England as papal legate in 1554 to mediate the reconciliation with Rome

How was the Spanish alliance viewed by the English public?

The alliance was unpopular, leading to the feeling among English subjects that the country was being used as a "Spanish pawn"

International Context and the Move to War

Why did Mary’s objectives come into conflict internationally?

Mary’s objectives soon came into conflict due to the wider European environment

Habsburg-Valois Conflict

Who were the major powers involved in the Habsburg-Valois War?

Spain/Habsburgs and France/Valois

What happened when Charles V abdicated?

Charles V abdicated (October 1555–January 1556) and Philip II took over his territories in the West including Spain, Spanish America, Naples, and the Netherlands

How did Henry II of France influence the conflict?

Henry II of France's victories shifted the focus of the war towards the Netherlands, bringing England more directly into the European arena

Conflict with the Papacy

What happened in 1555 regarding the papacy?

The fiercely anti-Habsburg Paul IV became Pope

What was the effect of Pope Paul IV allying with France?

Paul IV allied with France (July 1556) and Mary, despite her loyalty to Catholicism, effectively found herself at war with the Papacy by siding with Philip II

Declaration of War (1557)

How did Mary initially respond to the conflict with France?

Mary initially demonstrated a genuine desire to remain neutral and acted as a mediator at Gravelines in 1555

How did Philip II pressure England to go to war?

Philip continually pressed England for support, returning in March 1557 to demand funds and troops

What provoked England to act first against France?

The French provoked England through the Stafford raid, a bizarre landing of French troops led by Thomas Stafford at Scarborough in April 1557

When did England officially declare war on France?

England declared war on France in June 1557

How did English forces assist Spain in 1557?

English forces assisted the Spanish at the successful siege of St Quentin in August 1557

The Loss of Calais (January 1558)

What was the outcome of the war regarding Calais?

The war resulted in the loss of England's last major territory on the French mainland

Who captured Calais and when?

French forces captured the Calais Pale in January 1558

How was the loss of Calais viewed by contemporaries?

It was seen as a national humiliation and an abandonment of sovereign English territory

How did propagandists link Mary’s policies to the loss of Calais?

Propagandists argued that the Spanish marriage and Catholic policy caused the loss of Calais

What do some historians note about Calais’s strategic value?

Some historians argue Calais was militarily a strategic irrelevance and expensive to maintain

What happened regarding Calais in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis?

Philip allowed France to keep Calais in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), signed after Mary’s death

Military and Naval Legacy

What military improvements occurred under Mary despite the war?

Mary’s reign initiated significant military organisation improvements

How was the navy improved?

The navy was reorganised and improved, including building 6 new ships and establishing a peacetime budget of £14,000

What reform was made to the recruitment system in 1558?

The recruitment system was reformed through legislation, establishing the militia under Lords Lieutenant and JPs, a reform that lasted 300 years

Why were these reforms significant for future English defence?

These reforms laid the basis for the organisation of the navy which would later defeat the Spanish Armada under Elizabeth I

Overall Assessment

How is Mary’s foreign policy generally evaluated?

Mary's foreign policy record is generally mixed to negative

Why might Mary be considered a failure in foreign policy?

Mary must be accounted a failure due to the humiliation of the loss of Calais

What was the public reaction to the Spanish-led policy?

The Spanish-led policy was unpopular and led to Spain replacing France as England's principal enemy in the subsequent reign

What were Mary’s main successes in foreign policy?

Mary successfully secured her marriage and the organisational return to Rome

What long-term benefits resulted from Mary’s policies?

Her policies led to beneficial naval and military administrative reforms

How should critiques of Mary’s foreign policy be tempered?

Critiques should be tempered by the fact that the loss of Calais was neither obvious nor predictable, and Mary's involvement in the war was initially modest