tudors

death of Queen Mary

17 November 1558

elizabeth’s coronation

15 January 1559

elizabeth’s first parliament

25 January 1559

elizabeth appointed William Cecil as her Private Secretary

November 1558

Elizabeth I’s consolidation of power

• no interference with succession, accepted by marys councillors

• Mary recognised Elizabeth as her successor and her husband signified his, sending his envoy, to see Elizabeth a month before Mary’s death.

• political and religious situations were delicate. war against France - loss of Calais

• November - Mary’s Lord Chancellor announced her death to Parliament and proclaimed Elizabeth’s succession.

• ->  political elite of the nation assented to Elizabeth's accession. 

• 9 of Mary’s councillors rode to Hatfield to assure Elizabeth of their loyalty.

• William Cecil appointed principal secretary

• acceded to the throne by taking herself to the Tower, from which she emerged on several occasions to show herself to her new subjects and benefit from pageants

• proceeded within two months to her coronation - 15 January

• Spanish ambassador, Count of Feria, visited Elizabeth days before Mary’s death, tried to broker a marriage alliance between Elizabeth and Philip II

elizabeth religious beliefs

• ambiguous, moderate protestant

• Educated by leading humanists, lived in protestant households

• Disliked long sermons and theological debates of protestant reformers

• Attended protestant services inn english but kept crucifixes in her private chapel

• 1558 privy council dominated by protestants

• clergymen to wear vestments, hyms to be accompanied by choir boys and organ

• Against married clergymen

• Shared many religious views with calvin

Act of supremacy 1559

• Restored royal supremacy in the church

• Reformation legislation of henry viii restored

• Heresy law revived under mary repealed

• Powers of royal visitation revived - allowed the Crown to appoint commissioners to ‘visit, reform, order, correct and amend all such errors, heresies, and abuses. (power to commissioners)

• queen as ‘supreme governor’ rather than as ‘supreme head’ of the Church of England as her father had been.

• oath of supremacy taken by clergymen and church officials; penalties for refusing

Act of uniformity

• use of single book of common prayer - modified version of the second book cranmer introduced in 1552 - vague to keep catholics and protestants happy

• Modifications - variations in eucharistic belief in the 1549 and 1552 wording permitted.

• ornaments of the church and ministers should be those that were in place before the act of uniformity 1549

• Issue of contention

• Many returning protestant exiles, assumed this dating was an error, did not expect the clause to be enforced

• Many calvinist clergy saw the ornaments as popish, objected to them

39 articles of religion introduced in 1563

• form the basic summary of belief of the Church of England(difference from catholicism)

• passed through convocation, given statutory authority 1571

• broadly supportive of reformed doctrine, especially that of Switzerland, attempted to adopt a broad and comprehensive approach to essential Beliefs

Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth

1570 and called on all loyal Catholics to depose her. English Catholics in an impossible position, forced to choose between loyalty to their Church and loyalty to their monarch.

The royal injunctions 1559

• Instructions on conduct of church services

• First injunction- ‘the suppression of superstition’ (ie. Catholic practices eg pilgrimages and the use of candles)

• Eucharist be administered at a simple communion table than at the altar - moving toward reform

• parish churches required to purchase an English Bible, 1538 injunctions, and a copy of Erasmus’s Paraphrases, as required in 1547.

• reflectedElizabeth's personal beliefs - disapproval of clerical marriage - prospective wives of clergy had to produce a certificate signed by two jps signifying their fitness

The treaty of cateau-cambresis, april 1559

• came to throne, england in conflict with france, loss of calais, weakened crown’s finances

• Wanted to extricate england from the war, financial state of france and spain meant that philip ii and henry ii did not want to continue the war

• france would retain calais for 8 years, would be restored to england afterwards if they kept the peace, if they failed to return it they'd pay 500,000 crowns

Intervention in Scotland 1559

• francis ii came to french throne, husband to mary queen of scots

• French troops to protect major scottish fortress - leader of scottish reformation + allies lords of congregation wanted power in edinburgh - requested assistance from england

• Elizabeth cautious of interfering

• cecil supported intervention - england would be more secure without french force north of the border, wanted removal of mary

• Persuaded elizabeth to intervene - even suggested his resignation

• sent money and armaments

• Lords of Congregation offered conditional support at the Treaty of Berwick in February 1560

• sent navy and army to french force- failed

• French withdrawal - fleet damaged by storm, and regent Mary of Guise died.

• Cecil secured favourable terms in the Treaty of Edinburgh in July.

• Lords of the Congregation - provisional conciliar government

• interests of Scottish Protestants protected + political influence of Mary reduced. 

Intervention in France, 1562

• Conflict between Catholics and Protestants in France in March

• Robert Dudley, encouraged Elizabeth to put military pressure on the French Crown (relatively weak state) to return Calais.

• Elizabeth gave Huguenot leader, 6000 men and loan of £30,000, with control of the port of Le Havre - army defeated ; Catholic side Duke of Guise assassinated.

• both sides leaderless - agreed to peace terms and drove English out of Le Havre, forced to seek unfavourable peace settlement - Treaty of Troyes in 1564.

• Elizabeth lost indemnity of Cateau-Cambrésis and Calais permanently→ the blow to Elizabeth's prestige - more cautious about supporting european Protestant causes

Possible suitors, elizabeth

• Philip ii spain - political stability + continuity

• → wanted to work against france

• Elizabeth evasive, philip made other suggestions → Two of philips cousins, archdukes of austria, - ferdinand unsuitable as a catholic, charles was a possibility- elizabeth had no intention of marrying him

• Prince eric of sweden - protestant, heir to swedish throne, friendship, no diplomatic benefit - no intention of marrying him,

• 1559 - rumours about eligible bachelors

• Earl of arundel - catholic

• Leading member of gentry, sir william pickering spent time with her - nothing to be gained politically

• Only serious contender → robert dudley, his wife was ill, assumed they'd marry - found dead at the bottom of stair, rumours he tried to kill her → marriage impossible

• 1563 - obvious she didn't want to marry

• petitions from parliament, foreign ambassadors making a case for advantageous marriage to european

smallpox October 1562

• hampton court, elizabeth taken ill -

• Serious epidemic - she recovered - made her marriage seem important, if she dies it could've been a civil war

Poor relief, elizabeth

• Poverty + vagabondage, widespread

• - increase in population, wages for labouring poor lower than century earlier, wage rates falling behind rises in prices

• Harvest failures - food shortages, especially in mid 1550s and mid 1590s

• old + sick suffered worst. - offerings of private benefactors - no longer enough

• Cecil concerned homeless/unemployed people were threat to law and order

• Contemporaries differentiated between deserving/undeserving poor, limited assistance/punished

• poor relief from church destroyed with reformation

• further ineffective Act was passed in 1563 - haphazard impact

• National legislation behind local provision set in a number of boroughs, Norwich + Ipswich not until the 1570s parliamentary legislation serious

Stabilising currency, elizabeth

• government more successful in restoring confidence in the currency.

• Northumberland and Mary sought to re-stabilise the currency - Elizabeth able to do so. Early in reign, scheme announced for withdrawal of debased coins and replacement soundly minted coins. 

• individuals suffered as a result

• only sound coins in circulation and the government did not resort again to debasement

• Prices continued to rise but the government no longer responsible

impact of religious developments, 1558-63

• appointment of new bishops - protestant moderates, most were returning exiles  - reshape the hierarchy of the Church of England along more evangelical lines,

• disapproved of clergy marrying, distrusted preaching and ensured the preservation of the musical culture of the cathedrals and university colleges. 

• Erastian nature of the Church of England.

• defining of relationship between crown and chruch and doctrinal position

• some saw it as the establishment of a true Church in England, English as God's elect nation (many of queen's key advisers, eg Cecil and Dudley) -> Puritanism emerge from this.

Functions of the privy council, elizabeth

• enforce religious settlement of 1559, requiring jps to investigate compliance in individual counties, overseeing laws against catholics

• adjudicate as a court of law as the star chamber and a board dealing with issues like local maladministration

• manage parliament

• discuss matters of state and offer policy advice from discussions to the queen

• Manage crown finances with lord treasurer and chancellors of exchequer

• Oversee operation of regional councils

• Administer realm instructing officials- sheriffs, jps… involved in local administration, built networks of influence in counties

• influence on appointment of jps

• Enforce laws and regulations of issues eg wages, vagrancy

• Oversee arrangements for national defence

Tactics elizabeth used to control the council

• Participated in discussions to prevent them agreeing with advice she would reject, only discussed with small groups

• Kept notes to question them and catch them out

• Consulter with men outside council like foreign ambassadors

• Promoted divisions, encouraged them to compete for rewards

• Displayed anger and violence - exclusion from court, arrest, execution

• Displayed affection

• - elizabeth and council disagree over her wish to meet mary, queen of scots, she does not go

• 1562 (smallpox)

negotiations over proposed marriage between elizabeth and french duke alencon. Hostility towards this match. Majority councillors opposed, october 1579 give no opinion. Elizabeth creates four new catholic councillors, asks them for advice, three refuse to oppose marriage. Exchanged betrothal rings 1581, eventually rejects him, saying her people are against it

1579-81

new generation of politicians, with a party of supporters each, at local and parliamentary level. Essex is ambitious, elizabeth ensures political vacancies go to cecil essex demands councillors say if they are for him or cecil - two factions. Essex is executed after uprising 1601

1590

Parliament, elizabeth

• Law making - 438 acts passed

• Granting tax - most important funcctoin, in all but two sessions asked to grant revenue

• Giving advice, elizabeth not interested in listening to advice, irritated when mps discussed what she felt was royal prerogative

• etermined to preserve the prerogative powers of the Crown which meant that she insisted on taking the most important decisions. Clashed with parliament:

• The right to call, prorogue and dissolve parliament.

• Declare war and make peace.

• Appoint and dismiss ministers and judges.

• Determine the monarch’s marriage.

• Name a successor.

Peter wentworth

• Example of what happens when you go against royal prerogative

• Gained notoriety as he was imprisoned for comments in the house of commons. 1576 asserted matters which elizabeth regarded as part of her prerogative powers.

• 1576 - released on queens orders

• 1593 second occasion he raised the issue of succession, imprisoned until death in 1597

Golden speech 1601

• Delivered by elizabeth to mps as final parliamentary session of her reign drew to a close, drew a veil over poor relations which had blighted this parliamentary session

1601, monopolies

• Relationship with parliaments broke down at the end of her reign over the issue of monopolies (granting exclusive rights to manufacture or sell certain goods), mps believed they were unfair, E intended for them to boost the economy (and made money granting licences)

• One occasion when crown officers lost control over house of commons, not helped by problems faced by robert cecil, who lacked skill as a parliamentary manager with fewer resources to undertake this task than his father. Compromise achieved, session ended with golden speech

• Philip ii marries henry ii of frances daughter, dies, new king francis ii marries mary queen of scots

1559

elizabethan Foreign policy, france, spain

• France presented the danger - refuse to return calais 1559, francis ii marries mary queen of scots - catholic guise family rulers of france and scotland. 

• Spain present danger because catholicism

• Netherlands unsure relations

• Alliances - treaty of cateau cambresis france and spain 1559

• Marriage negotiations with brother of french king 1570-1

• spanish tensions and armada

… mary married heir to french throne, … he became king francis ii

1558, 1559

death of Francis I in December, Guises influence on French policy to an end - had to return to Scotland. beginning of French wars of religion

1560

mary returned to scotland to assume role of queen, peace restored between england and scotland, government protestant, rival groups of nobles threatened civil war, mary not allowed power

1561

mary and darnley

• 1565 mary married lord darnley, great grandson henry vii - speculation she wanted english throne. Mary was pregnant but it was rumoured it was her secretary and lover - lord darnley's henchmen killed him in front of her. Mary gave birth to james - heir to scottish throne and after his mother to the english throne

• 1567 darnley recovering from an illness, mary taken lover earl of bothwell, darnley and his valet killed in explosion. Mary and bothwell ran away together and were married. Marriage ended and bothwell fled to denmark, mary defeated at battle of langside was forced to abdicate in favour fo her son

mary fled to england 1568

• elizabeth should show support but this would mean attacking her protestant allies, kept her under house arrest 19 years - point of catholi cand noble discontent (potential pawn of france and spain to depose elizabeth)

• reluctant for the execution of another anointed monarch

• mary faced trial at fotheringhay castle in northamptonshire

• privy councillors and nobles assisted by judges tried her

• at elizabeth's command - no sentence

• four months delay of ordering execution, parliament petitioned her but refused to sign death warrant until 1 february 1587, eventually executed

1568-72 years of crisis

• duke of alva’s army in netherlands sent by philip ii to suppress protestant revolt, threatened english security

• Deep - water harbours on dutch coast, and easterly winds made english target for spanish invasion

• 1568 - alva defeated dutch rebels led by william, prince of orange

• Elizabeth didnt have the means to challenge him directly, reluctant to send aid to protestant rebels

• Policy of harassment - encouraged seamen to make life difficult for spanish in the new world

Trade embargo, elizabeth spain

• Spanish governments reaction to confiscation of genoese load - rapid

• Alva seized english ships and property in the netherlands, philip did the same to spain - embargo on all trade between england and spain

san juan de ulua

• Hawkins slaving voyages 1562, 1564, 1567 attempt to break spanish trading monopoly in americas

• Attack on hawkins san juan de ulua 1568 increased tension between england and spain

• in …. spanish bullion ships on the way to the netherlands to pay spanish army, refuge from pirates in english ports

• Bullion was a loan by genoese bankers

• Cecil convinced to take the load (make it difficult for alva, revenge for san juan thought it was property of bankers?)

• Spanish response was severe - cecil criticised for deteriorated relationship

November 1568

spanish armada

• philip believed he was engaged in catholic crusade

• the spanish armada was huge, many vessells taked from portuguese

• sailing of armada delayed due to english attack on ships harbour at cadiz april 1587

• set sail july 1588

• to reach port of gravelines in spanish netherlands - intended that army by duke of parma would boardd ships to invade england

• sighted off the coast at cornwall, battle in channel end of july to beg. august

• English guns more effective than Spanish ones, ships were smaller and faster

• armada returned to spain due to winds - lost many ships

• 6th August, Armada anchored at Calais waiting for the Duke of Parma’s army to arrive, Parma was late. 7th August, the English sent ‘hell-burners’ – broke up the Spanish formation

• 1596 philip launches second armada but is destroyed by gales

• 1597 - essex to intercept third armada but sails to azores after treasure fleet, misses, leaving england undefended but third armada is wrecked by storms

Cult of gloriana

either:

• manufactured and used by elizabeths ministers as political propaganda, silence criticism and brainwash

• Need to replace the cult of virgin mary and to turn Elizabeth’s gender into a strength. It had little to do with the daily concerns of government and did not prevent criticism of the Queen.

puri†ans

• Puritans believed in the eradication of ‘popish superstition’ and their emergence can be traced back to the failure of the Convocation of Canterbury in 1563 to go further in its reform of the Church, however, some groups within the broader

• challenge to the Elizabethan settlement.

The Vestiarian Controversy

• tensions between queen, who desired conformity and ‘Puritans, who wanted eradication of ‘superstitious’ practices→ Vestiarian Controversy.

• figures within the Church decided they could not obey the rules on clerical dress in the Act of Uniformity and royal injunctions (Catholic /‘superstitious’)

• queen dismissed Thomas Sampson from Christ Church College for refusal to wear the required vestments.

• Archbishop Parker, and five bishops, issued ‘Advertisements’ in March 1566 - required clergy to follow ‘one uniformity of rites and manners’ in the administration of the sacraments

• 37 London clergymen refused to signify their support - sacked

• queen's determination to enforce the settlement

Presby†erian movement

• part of the Puritan movement - Church of England should be further reformed in structure and forms of worship

• infleunced by Calvin's views on Church organisation, partly reaction to Vestiarian Controversy

• Some questioned scriptural basis for authority of bishops + other aspects of Church. two pamphlets - two Admonitions, first attacked Book of Common Prayer and called for abolition of bishops, second - description of a Presbyterian system of Church government.

• geographically narrow movement, attracted some high-ranking support. 

• clergymen conflict with the authorities due to sympathy for the movement.

• grew in the 1580s. Ideas for Church government through local, national assemblies - attempts for change through Parliament failed, despite efforts of Peter Turner in 1584 and Anthony Cope in 1587.

• late 1580s, in decline, few Puritan clergy prepared to break with Church by refusing to accept the Three Articles, failure of Cope’ ‘Bill and Book in 1587 showed the futility of a parliamentary approach. 

• weakened by the death of key organiser, in 1589, no synod held after,

pamphlet war between Thomas Cartwright, a Cambridge academic, and the vice-chancellor of Cambridge University/archbishop of canterbury John Whitgift.

• Cartwright and Presbyterians - Church founded on ‘superstitious’ or ‘popish’ principles must be spiritually flawed, 1559 settlement had to be modified,

• Whitgift argued the Presbyterians’ attitude was destructive and would split the Church.

• Three Articles to which clergy had to subscribe:

  • Acknowledgement of the royal supremacy.

  • Acceptance of the prayer book as containing nothing ‘contrary to the Word of God.

  • Acceptance that 39 Articles conformed to the word of God.

• second Article - crisis of conscience for many clergy, not just Presbyterians, thought some parts of prayer book lacked scriptural justification. 

• Whitgift forced to back down under pressure from councillors, reduced second Article to acceptance of prayer book, most clergy able to justify accepting this - preaching ensured godliness within the Church.

• campaign had some success

• treating radical and moderates alike - despair among clergymen.

• had the complete support of the queen, policies/attitudes regarded with suspicion by many of her ministers.

Radical Puritans (Separatists)

• Separatism 1580s  - most extreme form of Puritanism, mainstream Puritans regarded Separatists with abhorrence

• wanted to separate from cofe

• regarded cofe as incapable of reforming itself to root out ‘popish or ‘superstitious’ practices and they wanted to create independent church congregation

• activities alarmed authorities and led to Act against Seditious Sectaries in 1593. Barrow, Greenwood and John Penry were tried and executed ‘for devising and circulating seditious books. 

• authorities chose to adopt harsh measures against numerically insignificant movement is difficult to explain, but vindictiveness on the part of Archbishop Whitgift has been put forward as an explanation 

•  Elizabethan Separatism was destroyed.

The decline of Puritanism

• Puritan influence declined in the late 1580s, deaths of Leicester, Mildmay and Walsingham, political supporters at court, defeat of the Spanish Armada reduced the perceived threat of Catholicism and lessened its attractions.

• disappearance of Presbyterianism meant Puritan attitudes became more acceptable within the traditional Church structure.

• fundamentally Calvinist beliefs of the Church of England reaffirmed in the lambeth articles of 1595, acceptable to puritans and opponents like whitfit

• 1559 book of common prayer accepted by both

• Recusants

• refused to attend church services, believed in catholic doctrine, wouldn't compromise - ⅓ nobles

Ca†holic †hrea†

• attitude of toleration towards Catholics, early years of her reign but toleration conditional on obedience, not all Catholic practices tolerated.

• energy spent on removing Catholic imagery from parish churches

• old religious ‘mystery plays’ abolished - link to doctrine of transubstantiation

• English Catholics survived as ‘church papists, outwardly conforming

• minority followed Catholic bishops, refused to conform to Oath of Supremacy in 1559. 

• some Catholic intellectuals went into exile

• some priests survived as private chaplains to Catholic members of nobility who protected them or conducted secret Catholic services -  recusants.

• Northern Rebellion of 1569 provoked a punitive attitude towards Catholics.

• 1571 Act

• made publication of papal bulls treasonable.

Act to Retain the Queen's Majesty’s Subjects in their Due Obedience. - treason to withdraw subjects’ allegiance to either the queen or the Church of England. Saying Mass became punishable by fine and imprisonment, fine for non-attendance at church was raised to the prohibitive figure of £20 per month. Although the laity were not too harshly treated, 4 Catholic priests were executed in 1581, and 11 in 1582.

• 1581

• Act against Jesuits and Seminary Priest - treasonable for priests ordained under the Pope's authority to enter England. This made it much easier for the courts to secure convictions for treason; 123 priests were convicted and executed under the terms of this Act from 1586 to 1603.

• savage increase in the financial penalties with the fine for recusancy being set at £20 per month in 1581

• - worsening relations with the Catholic King Philip II of Spain and partly because of fear of Catholic rebellion worse by the onset of Catholic missions of priests

• 1585

• drafting of a ‘Bond of Association for the Preservation of the Queen's Majesty’s Royal Person’

• by Burghley and Walsingham in October 1584 in response to the Throckmorton Plot. 

• Anyone who took the oath of association was required to execute summarily [i.e. murder] anyone who attempted to usurp the Crown or make an attempt on Elizabeth's life.

The Catholic missions

• In 1568 college, founded in Spanish Netherlands, to train Catholic priests to be sent to England and keep Catholicism alive and win new converts. 

• 1580 100 seminary priests in england

• operated, in secretive circumstances, country houses of Catholic gentry and aristocracy, being a Catholic priest was punishable by death from 1585

• The Society of Jesus began sending Jesuit priests to England in 1580.

• Edmund Campion - first jesuits to be involved in attempting to recatholicise england, captured and executed in 1581

• success of the missions was limited, while Catholic gentry were enabled to retain their faith, humbler Catholics ignored

views on the war against spain

• Elizabeth sought national security

• many at court and in the army felt the war was of national/religious survival against Catholic conspiracy

• Some wanted confrontation in Netherlands of Duke of Parma, others like John Hawkins favoured a more expansive naval campaign, while accepting a land campaign in the Netherlands - argued that war in the Netherlands tended to be expensive/difficult, while England had success with small-scale naval attacks in the Caribbean and on mainland Spain in 1585 and 1587.

philip offered to marry elizabeth - gesture to show support

1559

philip protested to elizabeth about her support for huguenot rebels against catholic government in france

• 1562

• philips government in netherlands banned imports of english cloths - to protect against plague from england

• balance of trade in english favour while elizabeth ignored piracy in the channel -annoyance

• english merchants spreading protestantism in netherlands, banned imports from netherlands, both sides backed down and normalised trade relations 1564

• 1563

• revolt of netherlands, spanish duke of alba sent to netherlands to crush calivnist rioting and restore firm government

• northern coast of channel insecure - albas army might turn against spanish rule, tensions in netherlands developing into civil war 1566.

• Philip sent duke of alba and 10,000 troops to restore order done in brutal manner

• 1566-7

• - spanish expelled english ambassador from madrid, replaced its ambassador in london with hard line catholic, de spes - added tensions, he made contact with mary queen of scots

• 1568

caribbean spanish government ships attacked john hawkins fleet, trespassing on spains monopoly of atlantic slave trade - source of spanish grievances

1568

elizabeth seized bullion transported through channel for albas army - already owed pay, caused crisis, retaliation confiscating english ships at ports in netherlands, elizabeth banned trade with netherlands and spain until 1573

1568

• elizabeth considered marriage to duke of anjou, brother of king of france to prevent france and spain acting together against her

1570

 ridolfi plot

• philip and de spes implicated - de spes expelled, repression of catholics in england

• Philip authorised alva to send financial aid to catholics in north england - changed his mind despite papal bull excommunicating elizabeth 1570

• Nothing to prevent english seamen attacking spanish ships, pursued marriage alliance with french duke of anjou

1571

treaty of blois

• 1572: formal anglo french defensive alliance against spain - didnt happen because e didnt want war with netherlands to support france

intensification of civil war in netherlands, rebels seized port of brill - elizabeth accused of giving safe harbour to rebels by spain

1572

• spanish commander duke of parma recovered lost lands in netherlands to rebels - increase risk of spanish invasion of england

1579

philip ii inherited portugues crown and its empires in africa and asia

1580

• spanish ambassador mendoza expelled after implicated in throckmorton plot to install mary as queen - anglo spanish war closer, english privateers capturing spanish treasure fleets

1583-4

treaty of joinville signed between spanish and french catholics - death of henry iii’s last brother put huguenot next in line to french throne - catholics alarmed, approached spain (philip believed he could attack england without french reaction)

1584

• elizabeth signed treaty of nonsuch with dutch rebels - parmas recovering territory convinced her of action, sent 7000 troops to maintain rebellion, unofficial start of anglo-spansih war

• The troops, badly + irregularly paid, ill disciplined - alienated the Dutch

• Dutch felt betrayed when officers William Stanley + Rowland Yorke, joined Parma.

• English commanders quarrelled + Leicester quarrelled with the Dutch (who thought Elizabeth was trying to do a deal behind their backs with Parma.) Leicester returned to England, resigning in January 1588. -> Philip thought he could exploit the divisions between the English and Dutch.

1585

• philip and elizabeth settled differences

• Trade restored in convention of Nymegen 1573, withdrew support for english pirates in caribbean due to 1574 treaty of bristol

End of 1572

• … elizabeth expelled dutch sea beggars - dutch protestant privateers sheltered in english ports, considered war with philip ii, had been attacking spanish shipping in channel

• revolt of netherlands, 3 years, english public opinion and councillors called for elizabeth to help dutch rebels prevent spanish military conquest and centralisation of netherlands

• Elizabeth refused to give aid to not antagonise spain

• Did not share enthusiasm of supporters when french government sent army to southern netherlands to support rebels

• Sent volunteer force under humphrey gilbert to prevent Flushing from french hands but kept good relations with french court after massacre of st bartholomew,

• alva crushed revolt easily

• 1572

1580s, elizabeth adopted more anti spanish position

• supported portugues pretender don antonio

• knighted francis drake on circumnavigating the globe

• treated spanish ambassador contemptuously

william of orange, dutch rebel leader assassinated

1587

Trade, elizabeth

• value of internal trade exceeded foreign trade

• biggest single development in internal trade - growth in shipping of coal from Tyne to the Thames - growing demands of London market, developing trade with France.

• wider range of foreign luxury goods imported - goods becoming affordable for more

• cloth trade with Netherlands, while important, declined

• Antwerp cloth market declined early 1550s.

• Cecil anxious for political reasons to end dependence on a single market.

• new overseas markets took place, eg in Russia (economically marginal)

• increase in trade with Ottoman Empire.

• England remained backward in its exploitation of trading opportunities

trading companies set up to widen England's trading interests, relatively modest (elizabeth)

• Muscovy Company incorporated in 1555 to trade with Russia and northern Europe, failed in the long term to compete with the Dutch.

• Levant Company, 1581 Turkish Company - success in trade with Ottoman Empire.

• East India Company1600 to trade with Asia, less investment than Dutch East India Company, difficult to compete short term

• joint-stock companies owned by their shareholders in a model of organisation essential to future capitalist development

Slave trade, elizabeth

• main centre of African trade was Guinea, starting point for John Hawkins’s move into the Americas → English slave trade, three expeditions from 1562, acquiring slaves in Africa, sold in South America. 

• first two expeditions proved to be financially successful, irritated the Spanish authorities.

• 1564, Hawkins secured investment from prominent courtiers, support from the queen supplied ships 

• third expedition attracted royal support but went disastrously wrong when Hawkins’ fleet was blockaded in the Mexican port of San Juan de Uhia - antagonised relations between England and Spain, 

• queen was prepared to become involved - willing, for profit, to risk antagonising Philip I.

Exploration and colonisation, elizabeth

• little importance at the time, greater in light of subsequent development-  extension of trade to mainland of North America, attempt to form a colony in Virginia. 

• explorer suggested England should colonise North America

• encouraged and presented to the queen.

• support of a number of prominent investors, in 1585 patent from the queen to colonise Virginia, two expeditions land on Roanoke Island (North Carolina)

• attempts at colonisation disastrous → poor organisation, reluctance by the queen to give priority due to war with spain

Prosperity and land, elizabeth

• landowners benefitted from economic trends, landed incomes rose, gained range of new material possessions

• increased income from land

• huge proliferation of building - boom

• at modest levels of society, farmers benefitted from rise in agricultural prices

• improvement in living, increase in agricultural production

prosperity and trade, elizabeth

• historians in first half of twentieth cenutry argue trade was good - supported by shipbuilding

• second half century historians - pessimistic, long term decline in cloth trade, reinforced as financial institutions were less sophisticated than counterparts in netherlands, germany and italy

urban prosperity, elizabeth

• old established towns like stamford and winhcester declines

• urban decay associated with corporate boroughs dependent on cloth indistry - migrated to rural areas

• other old establish towns like york and norwich improbed

• new settlements like manchester and plymouth developed

• prosperous towns had broad range of manufacturing industry, or were unincorporated - industry developed without hindrance from regulation

• growth of london may have had a detrimental effect but some benefitted from supplying to its economic needs

depression, elizabeth

• for many wages fell - esp at harvest failure

• 9 of 44 harvests poor

• 1594 - 7, four successive poor harvests - catastrophic

• 1596 wages collapsed less than half of nine years prior

• 1596-7 crisis, worst in north - starvation

economic conditions, elizabeth

• south east wealthiest, followed by norfolk, suffolk, inner west country counties

• poorest countries in north, and the west midlands

• Start of 17th century, economic circumstances led to commercial domination - trading companies to challenge domination of spanish, portuguese, dutch - interest in americas

• Cottage industries - nail making, hosiery, brewing - production rose, domestic demand thriving

• only one subsistence crisis in 1590s

• 1594 - 1597, poverty and harvest failure, helped reform of poor law 1598 and 1601

Society in elizabethan england

• under aristocratic domination during the reign of Elizabeth

• few hereditary peers.

• highest title, duke, carried inherent dangers, each of the four 1547-72, somerset, northumberland, suffolk, norfolk met with bloody traitors end

• after 1572 - didnt create dukes

• nobility more peaceful than earlier times, less concerned with defence

• below dukes, sought to enhance prestige - building projects - accomodate queen - houses on grand scale

• (below peearge) gentry increased in size, proportion of wealthy increased - wide social range - influential knights, figures of importance to modest landowners…

• other levels differed little

• gap between rich and poor widened - start of consumer society among prosperous members of landed, mercantile and professional classes

• most lived in countryside, only large city was london - 150,000, many migrants from other parts of country

• first act to attempt to create a national system of poor relief to be financed and administered locally. Under the Act, towns were required to make provision for the employment of the deserving poor.

Poor Law Act of 1576

Elizabethan Poor Law Act of 1601

• the parish became designated as the institution required to raise the rates for, and to administer, poor relief

• each parish to appoint overseer of poor - efficient colleciton of poor rates and appropriate distribution of relief

• relieve impotent poor, set able-bodied to work, appreentice poor children - supervised by jps

• government ensured minimum level of subsitence off desrving poor - intact until 1834

branded added to punishments available to authorities (to undeserving poor),later first time offenders whippedand sent to parish of their birth, repeat offenders potentially executed

1572, 1597

Problems in ireland, elizabeth

• elizabeth adopted policy of englishness in religious + secular matters

• lacked power to impose protestantism on largely catholic population, gaelic in language, customary laws and landownership different from english

• english comers went to ireland to get rich, use of martial law led to bad relations with gaelic irish and old english

elizabeth proclaimed supreme governor or church of ireland

1560

rebellions in south ireland against english rule

• 1569 - 73, 1578-82

• linked with spanish incursion into county kerry - anglo- irish relations worsened with brutal response of lord deputy of ireland lord grey

third irish rebellion

• linked to anglo spanish war, difficult/expensive for crown to suppress,

• centered on ulster, earl of tyrone 1595 with spanish to exploit situation, including irish contigent in armada of 1596

• unsuccessful, but spanish intentions caused unease

• battle of yellow ford august 1598

• - successful - tyrone and allies in control of ireland beyond the pale (he might establsih independent catholic ireland with spanish support)

• elizabeth sent earl of essex to ireland as lord lieutenant 1599, made truce despite large force, defied orders and returned to court

• truce expired - tyrone moved south, camped near kinsale on coast, southwest of cork - link up with spanish army

• english made progress under new lord lieutenant

• in kinsale, spanish troops september 1601 - english triumphed december

• tyrone returned to ultster - peace with lord lieutenant march 1603

wales, elizabeth

• welsh border no longer problem, continued integration of england and wales

• wales remained relatively poor, linguistic and cultural difference

• council of wales and marches in operation, little border issues

• welsh language disappeared as medium of government but as medium of religion, translated book of common prayer and bible into welsh, dictionaries…

• welsh gentry prospered, many weslh implicated in essez rebellion - political discontent towards end of reign

north of england, elizabeth

• scotland separate and independent state - possibility of border conflict

• continuation on borders of lawless subculture - violence, rustling of sheep/cattle - problems for authorities in both countries

• english side of border - administrative responsibility with wardens of three border marches - traditionally appointed from families of great northern magnates, appointed southerners - difficult for nobles without local landed base to control northern fmailies or border clans

• severe harvest, rising, prices, plague - despration but stability held - authorities feared vagabondage, severe treatment of undeserving poor

• food riots in london, kent, hampshire, norfolk

• mid 1590s

oxfordshire rising 1596

• heavy handed response - not a rising but bad scheme by four men

• desperate by poverty to seize armaments and march on londong - fear of social dislocation, didnt reflect reality

northern rebellion, 1569

• Spanish ambassador, Guerau de Spes,

• Durham and North Riding of Yorkshire

• leading northern nobility, earls of northumberland and westmorland, religious fervour among leaders and ordinary

• leaders had political motives - displaced from traditional aristocratic control of northern government

• → conspiracy, westmorlands brother in law, duke of norfolk(ridolfi plot)

• november - rebels marched on durham , seized city, heard mass in cathedral

• marched on york, camping, moved into county of durham, besieged crowns hold of barnard castle, captured in december

• crown force on its way north - earls disbanded and fled to scotland

• january 1570 - northumberlands cousin restarted rebellion in cumberland, defeated naworth east of carlisle, royal force under command of queens cousin lord hunsdon

northern rebellion aftermath

• rebellion failed due to - disorganisation, poor leadership, lack of foreign support,

• decisive action by authorities, crown servants acted well, cecil took time with decisions

• → lack of comprehension of differences between north and south, managing localities

• ruthlessness of punishment from elizabethan government - mass execution of rebels ordered

• rebellion geographically limited, no support from conservative nobility of rest of north, little enthusiasm to dethrone elizabeth

• council of north reconstituted 1572 to reinforce crowns hold, under control of earl of huntindon - relative of the queen, puritan

problems in 1590s

• By 1597, council only had 11 members

• Queen refused to allow Burghley to retire, - job wasn’t being done properly

• Cecil allowed his son to take over some of his responsibilities - angered Essex

• War continued, huge drain on resource, lacked direction because of scarce resources, unable to secure final victory

• Decline in yield - poor yields meant economic hardship for many

• No attempt to revise system -lack of money

• Abuse of monopolies as a result

• Rise of Robert Cecil and the Earl of Essex

• Overreliance on the middle-aged relatives of her elderly advisors

• Power-grabbing

• Queen unable to stand up to Essex- undermined her authority

• Lack of taxation