Unit 1: Imperial Russia and WWI

Nicholas I

conservative Tsar who reigned from 1825-1855; repressed minorities and enforced censorship

Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality

Nicholas I’s method of ruling, under which:

• he believed that he was the sole authority as the divinely appointed agent of God

• he made both political and religious decisions

• he believed Russians were superior to other nationalities

Serfdom

a socio-economic system under which Russia operated until 1861, in which peasants were tied to the land they worked on, providing labor to their lords in return for housing and protection

Crimean War

War between Russia against the Ottoman Empire and its French and British allies; ended in humiliation for Russia

Siege of Sevastopol

major military operation during the Crimean War

Paris Treaty (1856)

Treaty signed at the end of the Crimean War by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey. It was meant to strengthen the security of the Ottoman (Turkish) empire and limit the power of Russia. Under this treaty, Russia:

• gave up any claim to holy land

• gave up entire navy

Alexander II

Son and successor of Nicholas I; he sought to modernize/westernize Russia through political, social, and economic reform

Arguments against Serfdom (Economic, Military, Moral and Intellectual, Practical)

1. Economic:

   • freeing serfs would allow them to work in factories, leading to more workers and more economic growth

2. Military:

   • because serfs composed most of the Russian army (as a result of their requirement to serve), abolishing serfdom would lead to more trained and competent soldiers

3. Moral and Intellectual:

   • contemporary modern countries opposed slavery of any kind

   • nobles would be less lazy if serfdom were abolished

4. Practical:

   • growing discontent could no longer be handled, and a serf revolution would be inevitable if nothing changed

Emancipation Edict

The first and most important of the liberal reforms enacted during the reign of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. The reform effectively abolished serfdom throughout the Russian Empire.

Reactions to Edict

• Peasants were unhappy with the Edict, feeling that it wasn’t progressive enough

• Nobles were unhappy with the Edict, feeling that it was too progressive

Alexander II’s Military Reforms

Part of Alexander II’s attempts to modernize/westernize Russia. These reforms:

• ended flogging of soldiers

• prohibited military servitude as an indicted punishment

• reduced military service from 25 years to 6 years

• created literate soldiers by creating schools for members of the army

• allowed nobles to serve in the army

Despite these reforms, the Russian army still lacked weapons.

Alexander II’s Judicial Reforms

Part of Alexander II’s attempts to modernize/westernize Russia. These reforms:

• publicized trials

• provided defense attorneys

• required legal training for Russian judges

Alexander II’s Cultural and Educational Reforms

Part of Alexander II’s attempts to modernize/westernize Russia. These reforms:

• relaxed censorship of books and papers

• allowed colleges to create and teach their own courses

• separated church from school

Zemstva

a system of elected local assemblies established by Alexander II to replace the authority of the nobles in administering local affairs after the abolition of serfdom

• Russian peasants were allowed to vote for officials; this was the first time many of them could interact with the government

• many pre-existing government officials did not like this reform

Populism

Growing sentiment of empowering the people over elites that began to spread in Russia among the educated, partially as a result of Alexander II’s educational reforms

“Going to the People”

A movement that arose as a result of growing populist sentiment; involved educated college students going to the countryside to teach farmers about their agricultural socialist/populist beliefs

• many farmers did not understand or were angered

Peter Tkachev

a Russian writer, critic and revolutionary theorist who formulated many of the revolutionary principles that were later developed and put into action by Vladimir Lenin

• he believed hat populism would never work because wealthy peasants would always support the Tsar

• the only way to transition to a socialist society, he believed, was for the Tsar to be violently overthrown by a dictatorship

• these ideas spread in popularity

People’s Will/Assassination of Alexander II

a group of revolutionaries dissatisfied with Alexander II’s policies who eventually assassinated him

Loris-Melikov Reforms

The reform that Alexander II was planning to sign the day of his assassination that would establish a Parliamentary body in Russia; would eventually be ratified by another Tsar

Alexander III

Alexander II’s son and successor who believed the assassination of his father was a result of his liberal reforms and who pulled Russia back towards conservatism

“Exceptional Measure”

policy under Alexander III’s police reforms that gave him the authority to install police in certain areas who would legally be allowed to prosecute anyone suspected of terrorism and exile them

Land Captains

men appointed by Alexander III to enforce his orders in the countryside who had the authority to override elections to the Z and overturn court decisions

• they were encouraged to weed out revolutionaries

Alexander III’s Educational Reforms

series of reforms under Alexander III that aimed to push censorship and limit revolutionary thought, which included:

• rollback of freedoms for universities

• increase in the cost of university, preventing anyone but nobles from attending

• outlawing of meetings of 5+ students

• prohibition of anti-nationalist thought in elementary and high school classrooms

Russification

series of cultural reforms under Alexander III that aimed to increase Russian nationalism, which included:

• enforced use of Russian language

• pogroms against Jewish people

• enforced conversion to the Russian Orthodox Church

Sergei Witte’s Economic Reforms

• put Russian currency on the gold standard, increasing foreign investment

• exploited iron to use in factories and railways

Social Democrats (Bolsheviks and Mensheviks)

a group of progressives who believed in revolution against the Tsar who would eventually split into two factions:

Bolsheviks: believed in violent resistance against the Tsar

Mensheviks: believed in legal methods and trade union work

Social Revolutionaries

A group that formed from the ideas held by members of the “Going to the people” movement

• believed peasants would lead the revolution, but varied on methods

• organized riots

• wanted to assassinate members of the Tsar’s cabinet

Liberals

various political groups that believed in reform within the Tsarist system

• mostly consisted of educated people who were already afforded privileges by society

Zubatov Movement

movement led by a member of the Russian secret police, Zubatov, who wanted to give some concessions to the workers

• Zubatov and other like-minded secret police members helped form unions for workers in factories by threatening their employers

Russo-Japanese War

conflict between Russia and Japan over Manchuria and Port Arthur; ended in a devastating blow to Russia’s economy and morale

Bloody Sunday

A massacre that began when peaceful, pro-Tsar protestors were killed by soldiers; stirred revolutionary fervor in the people and led to the outbreak of strikes all across the country

Potemkin

ship upon which violence broke out when a navy soldier was shot for requesting better conditions; when the other soldiers retaliated, the Tsar sent the army, who killed almost everyone on and around the ship

• this demonstrated the extent of Russian unrest

Soviets

a group that began as a council of workers who overthrew the Russian factory; demonstrated to the Tsar that workers were ready to organize and Bolshevikism could work

October Manifesto

document ratified by Nicholas II in an effort to grant some concessions to the people before the Soviets began a violent uprising, which included:

• freedom of speech and conscience

• freedom of association (political parties)

• the creation of the Duma

Why did the Tsar survive 1905?

• the military stayed on the Tsar’s side because Sergei Witte had secured a loan to raise their wages

• there was too much disagreement among opposition groups

• liberals were happy with the concessions of the October Manifesto

WWI: The Players

Germany

• a constitutional monarchy with a king and a prime minister

• a relatively new country that had only just united but had industrialized very quickly

• suffered from social and political divisions and problems with Prussians

France

• a democratic republic with extensive civil liberties

• allied with Russia, who owed them a lot of money (very good for France’s economy)

Britain

• a parliamentary democracy with a monarchy

• their main goal: to protect their overseas colonial holdings using the policy of “splendid isolation,” which meant they would protect their territories but wouldn’t go out of their way to fight other nations

Austria-Hungary

• a dual monarchy: 1 king, 2 parliaments (one for Austria, one for Hungary)

• their main concern was with Serbia, which was very aggressive (and backed by Russia)

Ottoman Empire

• in chaos as a result of the Sultan being overthrown by the Young Turks

• everyone was waiting for them to die :(

Bismarck’s Alliances and Weltpolitik

Bismarck wanted to build a web of alliances to protect Germany

After Kaprivi replaced Bismarck, German foreign policy changed completely

Weltpolitik: imperial German foreign policy that aimed to turn Germany into a world power through aggressive diplomacy

Verdun and Somme

Two brutal battles fought through trench warfare that resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths

Verdun: a French fortress town that Germany hoped to kill as many people as possible in

• a battle of attrition: 303 days long

• 315,000 French deaths, 230,000 German deaths

• considered a French victory

Somme: a diversionary battle fought between German and British troops at the same time as the battle of Verdun

• involved the first use of a tank; over 1 million people suffered casualties

Other Fronts in WWI

Italian: a diversionary front meant to draw German troops away from the Eastern and Western Fronts

• did not go well for the allies

Turkey & Middle East: Ottoman Empire and usually Britain

• Britain fought alongside native Arabs

Colonial Territories: colonial subjects were sent to fight for their imperial governments

Trench Warfare

the unprecedentedly deadly and stationary style of fighting that emerged during WWI as a result of the development of machine guns

• along with the deadliness of the artillery weapons used, the trenches were a breeding ground for disease, and most soldiers died from the flu

New Technologies (WWI)

Reasons for German Defeat/Allied Victory

Germany made several gambles that didn’t pay off, including:

• The Schlieffen Plan

• Verdun

• unrestricted U-boa

WWI: A Total War?

• the war was fought not for limited aims but for total victory

• Governments used all weaponry available to end the war, developing new technologies as the war progressed

• civilians were deliberately targeted

• nations developed new ways of controlling the economy and their populations in order to fight the battles of WWI

Growth of Government Power: WWI

As a result of the war, many governments—such as those of Britain, France, and Germany—centralized power and subjected citizens to much greater control

WWI’s Cost (Moral, Economic, Political)

Moral:

• about 9 million soldiers were killed and even more suffered severe casualties

Economic:

• all powers involved had to borrow money (often from the U.S) and were in immense debt

• farmland, factories, and railroads were completely destroyed

Political:

• monarchies crumbled overnight, political structures changed completely

• Austria-Hungary split into Austria and Hungary

• the Ottoman Empire dissolved

• Germany underwent a complete change in leadership

“Stabbed in the Back” WWI

Sentiment held by German nationalists after World War I, claiming that their defeat was due to treachery from other nations rather than military failure. This narrative fueled resentment and contributed to the rise of extremist movements in Germany.

Treaty of Versailles

Controversial peace treaty that officially ended WWI, created by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George

some of its terms included:

• War Guilt: Germany was solely responsible for the war and all damages caused

• Disarmament: Germany could have at most 6 battleships and one army of 1,000 men

• Territorial Changes: Germany lost 15% of its land

• Reparations: Germany had to pay for damages and pensions to war widows and soldiers who were wounded

• Punishment of War Criminals: some of Germany’s high-ranking generals would be put on trial for the Rape of Belgium

Criticisms/Alternative Views of Treaty of Versailles

Criticisms:

• most Germans were very unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles, believing that its War Guilt Claus was too harsh

• After disarmament, Germany was very vulnerable, especially to the Communists to the East

• these factors led to a general sentiment of paranoia and discontent among German citizens

Alternative Views:

• some contemporary historians believe that Versailles was actually very forgiving

• Nazi propaganda has influenced our perspective of the Treaty of Versailles

Treaty of St. Germain

peace treaty that officially recognized the division of the former empire of Austria-Hungary and helped to divide the territory between the two new states

• Austria lost much of its land

• the treaty specified that Austria was not allowed to recombine with Germany

Treaty of Trianon

peace treaty that revolved around the division of the former territory of Austria-Hungary

• Hungary lost ~75% of its territory and was now landlocked

Treaty of Sevres

peace treaty that revolved around the division of former Ottoman Empire territory

• a large portion of the Ottoman Empire’s territory was given to the League of Nations

• Greece was granted a portion of Turkey’s territory known as ____, which Turkey promptly reconquered through a war

Treaty of Lausanne

peace treaty that largely undid the decisions related to ____ made during the Treaty of Sevres, officially recognizing the region of ____ as Turkish territory again