Studied by 1 person
Nicholas I
conservative Tsar who reigned from 1825-1855; repressed minorities and enforced censorship
Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality
Nicholas I’s method of ruling, under which:
he believed that he was the sole authority as the divinely appointed agent of God
he made both political and religious decisions
he believed Russians were superior to other nationalities
Serfdom
a socio-economic system under which Russia operated until 1861, in which peasants were tied to the land they worked on, providing labor to their lords in return for housing and protection
Crimean War
War between Russia against the Ottoman Empire and its French and British allies; ended in humiliation for Russia
Siege of Sevastopol
major military operation during the Crimean War
Paris Treaty (1856)
Treaty signed at the end of the Crimean War by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey. It was meant to strengthen the security of the Ottoman (Turkish) empire and limit the power of Russia. Under this treaty, Russia:
gave up any claim to holy land
gave up entire navy
Alexander II
Son and successor of Nicholas I; he sought to modernize/westernize Russia through political, social, and economic reform
Arguments against Serfdom (Economic, Military, Moral and Intellectual, Practical)
Economic:
freeing serfs would allow them to work in factories, leading to more workers and more economic growth
Military:
because serfs composed most of the Russian army (as a result of their requirement to serve), abolishing serfdom would lead to more trained and competent soldiers
Moral and Intellectual:
contemporary modern countries opposed slavery of any kind
nobles would be less lazy if serfdom were abolished
Practical:
growing discontent could no longer be handled, and a serf revolution would be inevitable if nothing changed
Emancipation Edict
The first and most important of the liberal reforms enacted during the reign of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. The reform effectively abolished serfdom throughout the Russian Empire.
Reactions to Edict
Peasants were unhappy with the Edict, feeling that it wasn’t progressive enough
Nobles were unhappy with the Edict, feeling that it was too progressive
Alexander II’s Military Reforms
Part of Alexander II’s attempts to modernize/westernize Russia. These reforms:
ended flogging of soldiers
prohibited military servitude as an indicted punishment
reduced military service from 25 years to 6 years
created literate soldiers by creating schools for members of the army
allowed nobles to serve in the army
Despite these reforms, the Russian army still lacked weapons.
Alexander II’s Judicial Reforms
Part of Alexander II’s attempts to modernize/westernize Russia. These reforms:
publicized trials
provided defense attorneys
required legal training for Russian judges
Alexander II’s Cultural and Educational Reforms
Part of Alexander II’s attempts to modernize/westernize Russia. These reforms:
relaxed censorship of books and papers
allowed colleges to create and teach their own courses
separated church from school
Zemstva
a system of elected local assemblies established by Alexander II to replace the authority of the nobles in administering local affairs after the abolition of serfdom
Russian peasants were allowed to vote for officials; this was the first time many of them could interact with the government
many pre-existing government officials did not like this reform
Populism
Growing sentiment of empowering the people over elites that began to spread in Russia among the educated, partially as a result of Alexander II’s educational reforms
“Going to the People”
A movement that arose as a result of growing populist sentiment; involved educated college students going to the countryside to teach farmers about their agricultural socialist/populist beliefs
many farmers did not understand or were angered
Peter Tkachev
a Russian writer, critic and revolutionary theorist who formulated many of the revolutionary principles that were later developed and put into action by Vladimir Lenin
he believed hat populism would never work because wealthy peasants would always support the Tsar
the only way to transition to a socialist society, he believed, was for the Tsar to be violently overthrown by a dictatorship
these ideas spread in popularity
People’s Will/Assassination of Alexander II
a group of revolutionaries dissatisfied with Alexander II’s policies who eventually assassinated him
Loris-Melikov Reforms
The reform that Alexander II was planning to sign the day of his assassination that would establish a Parliamentary body in Russia; would eventually be ratified by another Tsar
Alexander III
Alexander II’s son and successor who believed the assassination of his father was a result of his liberal reforms and who pulled Russia back towards conservatism
“Exceptional Measure”
policy under Alexander III’s police reforms that gave him the authority to install police in certain areas who would legally be allowed to prosecute anyone suspected of terrorism and exile them
Land Captains
men appointed by Alexander III to enforce his orders in the countryside who had the authority to override elections to the Z and overturn court decisions
they were encouraged to weed out revolutionaries
Alexander III’s Educational Reforms
series of reforms under Alexander III that aimed to push censorship and limit revolutionary thought, which included:
rollback of freedoms for universities
increase in the cost of university, preventing anyone but nobles from attending
outlawing of meetings of 5+ students
prohibition of anti-nationalist thought in elementary and high school classrooms
Russification
series of cultural reforms under Alexander III that aimed to increase Russian nationalism, which included:
enforced use of Russian language
pogroms against Jewish people
enforced conversion to the Russian Orthodox Church
Sergei Witte’s Economic Reforms
put Russian currency on the gold standard, increasing foreign investment
exploited iron to use in factories and railways
Social Democrats (Bolsheviks and Mensheviks)
a group of progressives who believed in revolution against the Tsar who would eventually split into two factions:
Bolsheviks: believed in violent resistance against the Tsar
Mensheviks: believed in legal methods and trade union work
Social Revolutionaries
A group that formed from the ideas held by members of the “Going to the people” movement
believed peasants would lead the revolution, but varied on methods
organized riots
wanted to assassinate members of the Tsar’s cabinet
Liberals
various political groups that believed in reform within the Tsarist system
mostly consisted of educated people who were already afforded privileges by society
Zubatov Movement
movement led by a member of the Russian secret police, Zubatov, who wanted to give some concessions to the workers
Zubatov and other like-minded secret police members helped form unions for workers in factories by threatening their employers
Russo-Japanese War
conflict between Russia and Japan over Manchuria and Port Arthur; ended in a devastating blow to Russia’s economy and morale
Bloody Sunday
A massacre that began when peaceful, pro-Tsar protestors were killed by soldiers; stirred revolutionary fervor in the people and led to the outbreak of strikes all across the country
Potemkin
ship upon which violence broke out when a navy soldier was shot for requesting better conditions; when the other soldiers retaliated, the Tsar sent the army, who killed almost everyone on and around the ship
this demonstrated the extent of Russian unrest
Soviets
a group that began as a council of workers who overthrew the Russian factory; demonstrated to the Tsar that workers were ready to organize and Bolshevikism could work
October Manifesto
document ratified by Nicholas II in an effort to grant some concessions to the people before the Soviets began a violent uprising, which included:
freedom of speech and conscience
freedom of association (political parties)
the creation of the Duma
Why did the Tsar survive 1905?
the military stayed on the Tsar’s side because Sergei Witte had secured a loan to raise their wages
there was too much disagreement among opposition groups
liberals were happy with the concessions of the October Manifesto
WWI: The Players
Germany
a constitutional monarchy with a king and a prime minister
a relatively new country that had only just united but had industrialized very quickly
suffered from social and political divisions and problems with Prussians
France
a democratic republic with extensive civil liberties
allied with Russia, who owed them a lot of money (very good for France’s economy)
Britain
a parliamentary democracy with a monarchy
their main goal: to protect their overseas colonial holdings using the policy of “splendid isolation,” which meant they would protect their territories but wouldn’t go out of their way to fight other nations
Austria-Hungary
a dual monarchy: 1 king, 2 parliaments (one for Austria, one for Hungary)
their main concern was with Serbia, which was very aggressive (and backed by Russia)
Ottoman Empire
in chaos as a result of the Sultan being overthrown by the Young Turks
everyone was waiting for them to die :(
Bismarck’s Alliances and Weltpolitik
Bismarck wanted to build a web of alliances to protect Germany
After Kaprivi replaced Bismarck, German foreign policy changed completely
Weltpolitik: imperial German foreign policy that aimed to turn Germany into a world power through aggressive diplomacy
Verdun and Somme
Two brutal battles fought through trench warfare that resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths
Verdun: a French fortress town that Germany hoped to kill as many people as possible in
a battle of attrition: 303 days long
315,000 French deaths, 230,000 German deaths
considered a French victory
Somme: a diversionary battle fought between German and British troops at the same time as the battle of Verdun
involved the first use of a tank; over 1 million people suffered casualties
Other Fronts in WWI
Italian: a diversionary front meant to draw German troops away from the Eastern and Western Fronts
did not go well for the allies
Turkey & Middle East: Ottoman Empire and usually Britain
Britain fought alongside native Arabs
Colonial Territories: colonial subjects were sent to fight for their imperial governments
Trench Warfare
the unprecedentedly deadly and stationary style of fighting that emerged during WWI as a result of the development of machine guns
along with the deadliness of the artillery weapons used, the trenches were a breeding ground for disease, and most soldiers died from the flu
New Technologies (WWI)
Reasons for German Defeat/Allied Victory
Germany made several gambles that didn’t pay off, including:
The Schlieffen Plan
Verdun
unrestricted U-boa
WWI: A Total War?
the war was fought not for limited aims but for total victory
Governments used all weaponry available to end the war, developing new technologies as the war progressed
civilians were deliberately targeted
nations developed new ways of controlling the economy and their populations in order to fight the battles of WWI
Growth of Government Power: WWI
As a result of the war, many governments—such as those of Britain, France, and Germany—centralized power and subjected citizens to much greater control
WWI’s Cost (Moral, Economic, Political)
Moral:
about 9 million soldiers were killed and even more suffered severe casualties
Economic:
all powers involved had to borrow money (often from the U.S) and were in immense debt
farmland, factories, and railroads were completely destroyed
Political:
monarchies crumbled overnight, political structures changed completely
Austria-Hungary split into Austria and Hungary
the Ottoman Empire dissolved
Germany underwent a complete change in leadership
“Stabbed in the Back” WWI
Sentiment held by German nationalists after World War I, claiming that their defeat was due to treachery from other nations rather than military failure. This narrative fueled resentment and contributed to the rise of extremist movements in Germany.
Treaty of Versailles
Controversial peace treaty that officially ended WWI, created by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George
some of its terms included:
War Guilt: Germany was solely responsible for the war and all damages caused
Disarmament: Germany could have at most 6 battleships and one army of 1,000 men
Territorial Changes: Germany lost 15% of its land
Reparations: Germany had to pay for damages and pensions to war widows and soldiers who were wounded
Punishment of War Criminals: some of Germany’s high-ranking generals would be put on trial for the Rape of Belgium
Criticisms/Alternative Views of Treaty of Versailles
Criticisms:
most Germans were very unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles, believing that its War Guilt Claus was too harsh
After disarmament, Germany was very vulnerable, especially to the Communists to the East
these factors led to a general sentiment of paranoia and discontent among German citizens
Alternative Views:
some contemporary historians believe that Versailles was actually very forgiving
Nazi propaganda has influenced our perspective of the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of St. Germain
peace treaty that officially recognized the division of the former empire of Austria-Hungary and helped to divide the territory between the two new states
Austria lost much of its land
the treaty specified that Austria was not allowed to recombine with Germany
Treaty of Trianon
peace treaty that revolved around the division of the former territory of Austria-Hungary
Hungary lost ~75% of its territory and was now landlocked
Treaty of Sevres
peace treaty that revolved around the division of former Ottoman Empire territory
a large portion of the Ottoman Empire’s territory was given to the League of Nations
Greece was granted a portion of Turkey’s territory known as ____, which Turkey promptly reconquered through a war
Treaty of Lausanne
peace treaty that largely undid the decisions related to ____ made during the Treaty of Sevres, officially recognizing the region of ____ as Turkish territory again
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