GEN Final

Recombinant DNA Technology

A technique used to isolate and manipulate DNA from different biological sources.

Restriction Enzymes

Proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences, generating restriction fragments.

Vectors

Plasmids used to carry DNA to be cloned.

Cloning

The process of making identical copies of DNA or cells.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A method used to rapidly amplify, or copy, small segments of DNA.

Recombinant DNA

Artificially manipulated DNA formed by joining DNA from different sources.

Gene Editing

The process of making precise changes to the DNA of an organism.

cDNA Library

A collection of clones representing the expressed genes in a cell at a certain time.

Blue/White Selection

A method used to identify recombinant plasmids based on the color of colonies on agar.

Transgenic Organism

An organism that has been genetically modified to contain a gene from another species.

Gene of Interest

A specific gene that is studied or manipulated within recombinant DNA technology.

Homologous Recombination

A method of genetic recombination that occurs between similar or identical DNA sequences.

Epigenetics

The study of heritable changes in gene function that do not involve changes in the DNA sequence.

RNA interference (RNAi)

A biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation.

Blotting Techniques

Methods used for transferring DNA or RNA onto membranes and detecting them with probes.

Ames Test

A test used to assess the mutagenic potential of compounds by observing their effects on bacteria.

Transcription Factors (TFs)

Proteins that help regulate the transcription of DNA into mRNA.

Double-Strand Break repair

A mechanism to repair breaks in both strands of DNA that can lead to mutations.

Tumor suppressor genes

Genes that regulate cell division and prevent tumor formation.

Proto-oncogenes

Normal genes that can become oncogenes when mutated, leading to cancer.

Genomics

The study of entire genomes, involving sequencing, assembly, and analysis of genetic material.

Bioinformatics

The use of computers to organize, analyze, and interpret biological data, particularly nucleic acid and protein sequences.

Proteomics

The study of the protein content of cells, focusing on the structure, function, and interactions of proteins.

Personalized Medicine

A medical model that tailors healthcare to individual characteristics, often using a patient's genetic information to guide treatment.

Rational Drug Design

The process of finding new medications based on the understanding of biological targets, particularly specific proteins to modulate.

Whole Genome Shotgun Sequencing

A method for sequencing a genome where random fragments of DNA are sequenced and then computationally assembled.

Human Genome Project

An international scientific research project aimed at mapping and understanding all the genes of the human species within 15 years.

Contig

A continuous sequence of DNA that results from random fragments being aligned during genome assembly.

Exons

The coding sequences of a gene that remain in the final mRNA after introns are spliced out.

Introns

The non-coding sequences of a gene that are removed during RNA splicing.

SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism)

The most common type of genetic variation among people, involving a change of a single base pair in the DNA sequence.

Microarray

A tool used to detect the expression of multiple genes at once through hybridization of labeled cDNA to DNA probes on a chip.

Mass Spectrometry

An analytical technique used to identify the amount and type of chemicals present in a sample by measuring the mass-to-charge ratio of ions.

BLAST

Basic Local Alignment Search Tool, a program that finds regions of similarity between biological sequences, enabling retrieval of similar sequences from databases.

Functional Genomics

The study of gene function through the investigation of the relationships between DNA, RNA, and proteins in biological systems.

Comparative Genomics

The field of biology that compares the genomic features of different organisms to understand their evolutionary relationships.

Orthologs

Homologous genes found in different species that evolved from a common ancestral gene.

Paralogs

Homologous genes found within the same species that arise from gene duplication.

ENCODE Project

A project aimed at identifying all functional elements in the human genome through a comprehensive analysis of genomic data.

DNA Sequencing

The process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule.

Gene Annotation

The process of identifying and marking the locations of genes and all functional elements in the genome.

Histamine Receptor

Protein receptors in the body that play a role in various physiological functions, particularly in allergic responses and gastric acid secretion.

Ploidy

The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four genetically distinct gametes.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells, maintaining the original cell's chromosome number.

Cell cycle

The series of phases that a cell goes through, from its formation to its division.

Deviation

The difference between a measured value and a calculated value in statistics.

Chi squared analysis

A statistical method to determine the significance of observed versus expected frequencies.

Mendel’s postulates

Principles of inheritance that include the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment.

Pleiotropy

The phenomenon where one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits.

Codominance

A form of inheritance where both alleles contribute equally and separately to the phenotype.

Incomplete dominance

A form of inheritance where the phenotype expressed is a blend of the two parents' traits.

Epistasis

A genetic interaction where one gene masks or modifies the expression of another gene.

Penetrance

The proportion of individuals with a specific genotype that express the associated phenotype.

Expressivity

The degree to which a genotype is expressed in an individual.

Sex determination in Drosophila

The process by which the sex of Drosophila is determined, primarily by the ratio of X chromosomes to autosomes.

Sex chromosomes

Chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual, usually X and Y in mammals.

Lygaeus

A type of sex determination where the presence of a specific sex chromosome determines biological sex.

Nondisjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.

Turner’s Syndrome

A condition where a female is born with only one X chromosome, leading to various developmental issues.

Klinfelter Syndrome

A genetic condition in males caused by the presence of one or more extra X chromosomes.

Y chromosome

The sex chromosome that determines male biological sex.

Recombination mapping

A genetic mapping technique that uses the frequency of recombination between genes to estimate their positions on a chromosome.

Genotype vs. phenotype

Genotype refers to the genetic makeup, while phenotype refers to the observable traits of an organism.

Pedigree analysis

A chart used to show the inheritance of traits across generations in a family.

Central dogma

The process by which the information in genes flows into proteins: DNA -> RNA -> Protein.

Karyotype

A display of an individual's complete set of chromosomes.

Chromosome structure

Description of the physical form and arrangement of chromosomes within the cell.

Gene linkage

The tendency of genes located close together on a chromosome to be inherited together.

Sum law/Product law

Statistical rules used to calculate the probabilities of independent events occurring.

Chi Square analysis

A statistical method to assess how a theoretical distribution compares to an observed distribution.

Maternal effect

A phenomenon where the genotype of the mother directly affects the phenotype of her offspring.

Sex ratio

The ratio of males to females in a population.

Multi-gene hypothesis

The theory that traits are determined by multiple genes.

Narrow sense heritability

The proportion of phenotypic variance that can be attributed to additive genetic variance.

Broad sense heritability

The total genetic contribution to phenotypic variance, including additive, dominance, and epistatic genetic variance.

Conjugation

A process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact.

Hfr conjugation

High-frequency recombination where a donor cell transfers part of its chromosome to a recipient cell.

F’ conjugation

A type of conjugation that occurs when a F-plasmid improperly incorporates chromosomal DNA.

Transduction

The process by which bacterial DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus.

Transformation

The process by which a cell takes up foreign DNA from its environment.

Bacteriophage life cycle

The sequence of events that bacteriophages go through, including attachment, penetration, replication, and release.

Serial dilution

A stepwise dilution of a substance in solution, used to decrease concentration.

Translocation

The process in which a chromosome segment is moved from one position to another, either within the same chromosome or to another.

Hershey-Chase experiment

An experiment that demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material.

Nucleotide structure

The basic building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

DNA polymerase enzymatic activities

Functions of DNA polymerase that include DNA replication and repair.

Eukaryotic RNA processing

Post-transcriptional modifications to RNA, including capping, polyadenylation, and splicing.

Interrupted mating

A technique used to study bacterial genetics by interrupting the conjugation process.

Meristic traits

Traits that are counted in whole numbers and are determined by multiple genes.

Calculating polygenes

Determining the number of genes that contribute to a particular trait.

Covariance

A measure of how much two random variables change together.

DNA replication

The process by which a cell makes an exact copy of its DNA.

DNA structure

The arrangement of nucleotides in DNA, typically forming a double helix.

Inversion and recombination

A type of chromosomal mutation where a segment of DNA is reversed or rearranged.

Down syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by trisomy of chromosome 21.

Histones/nucleosome structure

Proteins that package and order DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.

Genetic code

The set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins.

Avery, MacCleod, McCarty experiment

An experiment that demonstrated that DNA is the transforming principle.

Protein structure

The three-dimensional arrangement of amino acids in a protein; includes primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.