Human Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam

Levels of Structural Organization in the Body

chemical→ Cellular→Tissue→Organ→Organ system→Organism

Nervous System

brain, spinal cord, nerves; regulates body function, provides for sensation, movement, automatic functions, and higher mental functions via nerve impulses

Endocrine System

pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries (female)/testes (male); regulates body functions, regulates the functions of muscles, glands, and other tissues through the secretion of hormones

Cardiovascular System

blood vessels, heart; pumps and delivers oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the tissues, removes waste from tissues, transports cells, nutrients and other substances

Lymphatic System

tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymphatic vessels; returns excess tissue fluid to the cardiovascular system, provides immunity

Respiratory System

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs; delivers oxygen to blood, removes CO2 from the body, maintains the acid-base balance of the body

Digestive System

mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, liver, stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, large intestine, small intestine; digests food, absorbs nutrients into blood, removes waste, maintains fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance

Integumentary System

hair, skin, nails; protects body from external environment, produces vitamin D, retains water, regulates body temperature

Skeletal System

bones, joints; supports the body, protects internal organs, provides leverage for movement, produces blood cells, stores calcium salts

Muscular System

skeletal muscles; produces movement, controls body openings, generates heat

Urinary System

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra; removes metabolic waste from the blood, maintains fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance, stimulates blood cell production

Male Reproductive System

prostate gland, ductus deferens, testes, penis; produces and transports sperm, secretes hormones, sexual function

Female Reproductive System

mammary glands, uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina; produces and transports oocytes, site of fetal development, nourishment, childbirth, and lactation, secretes hormones, sexual function

Anterior (Ventral)

toward the front

Posterior (Dorsal)

toward the back

Superior (Cranial)

toward the head

Inferior (Caudal)

toward the tail

Proximal

closer to the point of origin

Distal

farther from the point of origin

Medial

closer to the midline

Lateral

farther from the midline

Superficial

toward the surface

Deep

farther below the surface

Sagittal Plane

divides the body into left and right

Transverse Plane

divides the body into top and bottom

Frontal Plane

divides the body into front and back

Posterior Body Cavity

contains the cranial and vertebral or spinal cavities (CSF filled)

Anterior Body Cavity

contains the thoracic cavity

-pleural cavity (lungs)

-pericardial cavity (heart)

-mediastinum

abdominopelvic cavity

-pelvic cavity

-peritoneal cavity (abdominal)

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Abdominopelvic Regions

Core Principles of Anatomy and Physiology

feedback loops, structure and function, gradients, cell-cell communication

Negative Feedback

move in the opposite direction of the stimulus, and the effector's activity decreases when the variable returns to the normal range.

Positive Feedback

feature an escalating response that amplifies a stimulus

Isotope

an element that has the same atomic number as another element but a different mass number, due to a different number of neurons

Radioscope

certain high energy isotopes are unstable and will release energy in the form of radiation, this energy release, called radioactive decay, allows the isotope to assume a more stable form

Compound

a molecule composed of 2+ atoms of different elements

Macromolecule

very large compounds composed of many atoms

Solution

one dissolves another, smallest, transparent, solute and solvent, solubility, don't settle out, ex. saline, glucose, blood contains small dissolved molecules

Solute

the substance that is dissolved

Solvent

the substance in which the solute dissolves

Ion

a charged particle that has lost or gained 1+ electrons

Cation

a positive ion with more protons than electrons

Anion

a negative ion with more electrons than protons

Ionic Bonds

results when electrons are transferred between a metal atom and a nonmetal atom; ex. sodium-chloride bond

Covalent Bonding

chemical bonding resulting from the sharing of electrons between 2 nonmetals or a nonmetal and a hydrogen

Single Bond

only one electron pair is shared

Double Bond

2 electron pairs are shared

Triple Bond

3 electron pairs are shared

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

a covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally among the atoms in the bond

Polar Covalent Bond

a covalent bond in which electrons spend more time around the more electronegative atom(s) which results in the formation of a dipole

Hydrogen Bond

weak attractions between partially positive hydrogen atoms of one compound or functional group and partially negative atoms of another compound or functional group

Reactant

a substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction.

Product

a substance that forms in a chemical reaction

Endergonic Reaction

a reaction in which the products have more energy than the reactants and require an input of energy

Exergonic Reactions

the excess energy stored in the reactants is released, leaving the products of the reaction with less energy than the reactants

Catabolic Reaction/Decomposition

breaking down the products into smaller, less complex molecules

Anabolic Reactions/Synthesis

combining molecules into a larger, more complex molecule

Enzymes

increase the rate at which a reaction takes place by lowering the activation energy, highly specific for individual substrates and reactions, do not alter the chemicals, not permanently altered in the reaction

Activation Energy

all chemical reactions require the input of some amount of energy to overcome the repulsion of the atoms' electrons, and to allow adequately strong collisions to take place

Why is water a good solvent?

absorbs heat without changing significantly in temperature itself, carries hear with it when it changes from liquid to gas, cushions and protects the body's structures, acts as a lubricant between two adjacent surfaces

What dissolves in water?

hydrophilic substances easily dissolve in water, partially or fully charged ends

Acid

a compound that releases one or more hydrogen ions when placed in water, pH<7

Base

a compound that accepts a hydrogen ion from an acid, pH>7

Buffer

chemical systems that resist changes in pH and prevent large swings

pH Scale

a logarithmic scale that represents the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

Electrolyte

cations and anions that result when ionic compounds are placed in a solution, these ions will conduct an electrical current

Carbohydrates

monosaccharides- glucose, fructose

disaccharides- sucrose, lactose

polysaccharides- glycogen, starch, cellulose

Glycogen

a polysaccharide that is the storage form of glucose in animals, mainly found in the liver and skeletal muscles

Fatty Acids

a lipid with a hydrocarbon chain bound to a carboxylic acid group

Saturated Fatty Acid

a FA with no double bonds between any carbon atoms

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

a FA with double bond(s) between carbon atoms

Essential Fatty Acid

fats needed by the body that must be consumed in the diet because the human body cannot manufacture them

Triglycerides

consist of a glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Phospholipid

a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes

Steroid

a lipid consisting of a core of four hydrocarbon rings attached to another chemical group

Cholesterol

most common steroid in the body

Amino Acid

protein monomer

Peptide Bond

a covalent bond between the amino acid group of one amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of a second amino acid

Denaturation

the destruction of the 3D structure of a protein and the subsequent loss of its function

Enzyme Substrate

the reactant that an enzyme acts on

Enzyme Active Site

site of the enzyme surface where substrate molecules binds

Enzyme Product

thing that is made after catalyzed reaction is complete

ATP

main energy currency of human cells

Nucleic Acids

DNA, RNA

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that makes up about half of the cell's total volume. It is a watery gel with many proteins, different forms of RNA, and dissolved solutes

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

fluid located in the space between cells

Cytosol

filled with ICF, the site of many critical cellular processes such as protein synthesis, also where glycolytic catabolism, or glycolysis, take place

Plasma Membrane

outside border of the cell, phospholipid bilayer

Phospholipid Bilayer

semipermeable, hydrophobic heads and hydrophilic tails in the middle; 98% of the molecules are lipids, 75% of the lipids are phospholipids, 20% of the lipids are cholesterol, 5% of the lipids are glycolipids

Fluid-Mosaic Model

defines the plasma membrane as a structure with multiple parts whose arrangement is dynamic, meaning that it changes from moment to moment

Integral Proteins/Transmembrane

typically span the entire width of the membrane; when they do reach both sides of the membrane

Peripheral Proteins

found on only one side of the membrane

Function of Membrane Proteins

carry out many of the membrane's functions and give different cell types some of their unique properties

Glycoprotein

consist of carbohydrate chains (polysaccharides) covalently attached to either membrane lipids or proteins, found on the outside of the plasma membrane and function in cell recognition

Selectively Permeable

has "gates" that allow some things through but not others

Active Transport

against a gradient that requires energy expenditure in the form of ATP from the cell

Passive Transport

uses a gradient that does not require energy expenditure in the form of ATP from the cell; filtration, simple diffusion, osmosis

Simple Diffusion

solutes move through a membrane or fluid from high to low solute concentration without any aid

Osmosis

a type of passive transport in which solvent, usually water moves through a selectively permeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration

Hypertonic Solution

cell loses water, more solute particles