SOCI 201 FINAL - UofC

CHAPTER 8: RELIGION

Richard Dawkins (2)

• Well-known Atheist and author of ‘The God Delusion’

• Argues that atheists are oppressed in many societies because they are forced to accept or endure ideas they disagree with

What is Religion?

Religion is a system of meaning for interpreting the world, consisting of unified beliefs with a supernatural referent

What is a supernatural referent?

A divine, mystical, or otherworldly being or force that a religion is based on (i.e. God, spirits, ancestors, etc.)

What do religions suggest?

That existence has a predefined meaning and gives purpose

What is the humanist perspective on religion? (2)

• The humanist perspective is human-centered and often science-based, rejecting supernatural beliefs

• It argues that life has no inherent meaning; we create our own meaning

How is religion studied from a sociological standpoint?

Religion is studied scientifically by developing theories and hypotheses and testing them using rigorous scientific methods

What does Reginald Bibby say about religion in Alberta?

Alberta is not the Bible Belt of Canada and has the second-highest rate of people reporting "no religion" or "no religious affiliation" (after BC)

What does Reginald Bibby argue about religion in Canada? (2)

• Canadians and Albertans are trying to figure life out, but few are turning to traditional religions

• Argues formal religious institutions do not fully meet spiritual needs

Karl Marx & “Opium” (5)

1. Religion/God is a human creation

2. Religion is the “opium of people”

3. Religions maintains an unequal, exploitive society

4. Religion delays the inevitable transition to communism

5. Religion will eventually fade away

What does Marx mean by "religion is the opium of the people"?

Marx argued that religion numbs the suffering of the oppressed (i.e. drugs like opium), preventing them from resisting exploitation

Durkheim & “Holey” (4)

1. Religion is a social/human construct

2. Religion contributes to the collective conscience

3. Religions identifies this as sacred and profane

4. Religion will continue to impact people and behaviour

What is collective conscience?

The shared beliefs, values, and morals that unite a society and guide behavior, reinforcing social order (religion strengthens this)

Sacred

Things set apart as holy, special, and worthy of worship (i.e. religious symbols, texts)

Profane

Ordinary, everyday objects and activities (i.e. eating, working)

Durkheim: Functions of Religion (6)

• Fosters cohesion (unites people through shared beliefs)

• Offers support during crisis (comfort)

• Addresses ultimate questions (purpose & morality)

• Provides social service (charity & welfare activities)

• Legitimizes political authority (justifies law & leadership)

• Influences social change (inspires movements)

Weber & “Spirit” (4)

1. Wrote ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’

2. We should examine religion in terms of how it affects our behavior

3. Religion has been instrumental in shaping modern capitalism

4. Religion creates power for some leaders

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Weber argued that religious beliefs, particularly Protestantism, influenced the rise of modern capitalism

How did religion contribute to capitalism, according to Weber?

• Protestant work ethic promoted hard work, discipline, and frugality

• These values encouraged economic growth and investment, leading to modern capitalism

What are the four dimensions of personal religiosity argued by Reginald Bibby?

• Belief (in God)

• Practice (i.e. prayer)

• Experience (see/speak directly to God)

• Knowledge (understanding religious texts and teachings)

What percentage of Canadians believe in God?

8 out of 10 Canadians believe in God

How many Canadians believe in life after death?

7 out of 10 Canadians believe in life after death

How many Canadians pray at least once a month?

6 out of 10 Canadians pray at least once a month

What does the data (about God, the afterlife, and prayer) suggest about the importance of religion in Canada? (2)

• While most Canadians believe in God and life after death, only 1 in 4 consider religion to be "very important" in their lives

• This suggests belief is common, but deep religious commitment is declining

What is collective religiosity according to Durkheim?

It refers to how people behave collectively in religion, not just individual beliefs

What are two ways to interpret religions sociologically?

1. Church-sect typology

2. Organizational approach

Church-sect typology

Religions can split from existing churches into sects

Organizational Approach (5)

A perspective (by Bibby) that examines religions as structured organizations through:

1. Sources of members (where members come from)

2. Goals of the group (aim of religion)

3. Norms and roles (rules that guide behavior/purpose)

4. Sanctions (ways to ensure conformity)

5. Success (how well religion maintains itself)

What is the contradiction in religious trends?

Personal religiosity (belief, prayer, experience) is strong, but collective religiosity (church attendance, institutional influence) seems to be declining

What causes people to become religious? (3)

1. Reflection

2. Socialization

3. Deprivation

Reflection

Personal search for the meaning in life

Socialization

Learning religious beliefs from family, community, or culture

Deprivation

Turning to religion for comfort during hardship (i.e. economic, emotional, or social struggles)

Religion in Canada (3)

• High religious tolerance and a separation of church and state

• Catholics and Protestants have the most followers, but their numbers are declining

• Islamic, Hindu, Sikh, and Buddhist populations are increasing due to immigration

What does Reginald Bibby argue about the fate of religion in Canada?

Religion's survival depends on its ability to meet the needs and interests of Canadians

Are Canadians abandoning religion completely? (2)

• No, they are not leaving traditional religions entirely but are instead turning to fragments of them

• Bibby’s book called ‘Fragmented Gods’ discusses this

What is meant by "fragments" of traditional religions?

Instead of fully following a religion, people pick and choose certain beliefs and practices that suit them

What does Reginald Bibby say about the role of the "electronic church"?

Canadians are not turning to televised religious services as an alternative to traditional religion

Conclusion: How did Marx, Durkheim, and Weber differ in their views on religion? (3)

• Marx: Criticized religion as a tool for maintaining inequality

• Durkheim: Saw religion as functional for society, fostering cohesion

• Weber: Interested in effects on society and social structures

What is said about the future of religion in Canada?

Canadians appear highly religious, but the future of religion remains unclear

CHAPTER 9: SEX & GENDER

Who is Caster Semenya, and why is she significant?

A South African runner who was publicly scrutinized after "failing" gender testing due to high testosterone levels, highlighting issues of intersex identity and fairness in sports

Sex (2)

• Biological traits of men and women

• Chromosomes, gonads, hormones, anatomical differences

Gender

Gender is a social, cultural, and psychological construct linked to roles and behaviors traditionally associated with males and females

Sexual Orientation (4)

• Heterosexuality

• Homosexuality

• Bisexuality

• Sexual Continuum

What is heterosexuality?

Sexual attraction to individuals of the opposite sex

What is homosexuality?

Sexual attraction to individuals of the same sex

What is bisexuality?

Sexual attraction to both males and females

What is the sexual continuum? (2)

• The idea that sexual orientation exists on a spectrum rather than in fixed categories, recognizing fluidity in attraction

• Alfred Kinsey

What did Alfred Kinsey’s study find about sex? (3)

• 85% of men and 50% of women reported having premarital sex

• 30-45% of men and 26% of women reported engaging in extramarital sex

• 70% of men reported having sex with prostitutes, while no data was reported for women

What is extramarital sex?

Extramarital sex refers to sexual activity that occurs outside of one's marriage, involving at least one married partner

What did Alfred Kinsey's research on specifically the sexual continuum reveal? (3)

• 37% of males and 13% of females had homosexual experiences

• 11.6% of males and 4-7% of females fell in the middle of the sexual spectrum (Rating of 3)

• 10% of males and 1-3% of females identified as exclusively homosexual

Who was David Reimer?

David Reimer was a Canadian male assigned female after a botched circumcision and raised as a girl following sexual reassignment

What does David Reimer’s case show about gender? (2)

• Suggests gender identity is partly biological (nature), not just shaped by upbringing (nurture)'

• Despite being raised as a girl after a failed surgery, he identified as male, showing that biology plays a key role in gender

Essentialism

The idea that people and things have 'natural' characteristics that are inherent and unchanging

What is essentialism in sex differences?

Essentialism argues that biological traits (brain structure, genetics, and psychology) determine gender differences

Essentialism: Brain Studies (2)

• Left hemisphere: language

• Right hemisphere: visual and spatial skills

Essentialism: Sociobiology

Suggests that those who solve problems better pass on their genes, leading to evolutionary gender differences

Essentialism: Freud’s Oedipus & Electra Complexes (2)

Oedipus complex: boys unconsciously desire their mother and sees their father as a rival

Electra complex: girls unconsciously desire their father and sees their mother as a rival

Social Constructionism

Social Constructionism argues that gender roles are shaped by society, history, and culture rather than biology

Social Constructionism: Warfare & Conquest

Historically, warfare created male-dominated leadership and reinforced ideas of masculinity in power

Social Constructionism: Plow Agriculture

Farming with plows required physical strength, leading to men taking dominant roles in society (women took domestic spaces)

Social Constructionism: Separation of Public & Private Spheres

Men took public roles (work, politics), while women were expected to stay in the private sphere (home, caregiving)

What is the first critique to Essentialism? (critique + 3)

1. Essentialism is criticized for ignoring historical and cultural variability in gender and sexuality

• Variation of gender across cultures

• Rape rates vary widely across cultures (sexual violence is influenced by societal norms)

• Societies change without any corresponding
  genetic change

How do gender roles vary across cultures according to Margaret Mead?

Anthropologist Margaret Mead studied the Arapesh in New Guinea, where both men and women were nurturing, showing that gender roles are socially constructed rather than biologically determined

What is the second critique to Essentialism? (critique + 3)

2. Essentialists ignore that gender differences are rapidly declining and, in some cases, have already disappeared

• Studies found no significant difference in verbal abilities between genders

• Studies found a slight advantage for females in math ability

• Spatial differences were minor, showing that cognitive skills are not strictly tied to gender

What is the third critique to Essentialism? (critique + 2)

3. Essentialist research is often deeply flawed and lacks scientific evidence

• Sociobiologists have not identified specific genes responsible for: male jealousy, female nurturance, unequal division of labor between men and women

• Essentialists generalize from the average, ignoring variations within gender groups

What does the aggressiveness graph show about men and women? (3)

• The average level of aggressiveness is higher in men than women, but there is overlap

• Some women are more aggressive than half of all men

• Some men are less aggressive than half of all women

What is the fourth critique to Essentialism? (critique + 2)

4. Essentialists exaggerate how unchangeable gender differences are

• More egalitarian (promoting equality) societies show smaller gender differences, like a reduced age gap in relationships

• Essentialists fail to consider social power structures that shape gender roles

Economic Inequality (5)

• Double work day

• Sex segregation

• Sex typing

• Glass-ceiling

• Nonstandard work

What is a double work day?

When individuals, often women, work a paid job during the day and then perform unpaid domestic labor at home (i.e. childcare, housework)

What is sex segregation?

The division of jobs based on gender, where men and women are concentrated in different types of work (i.e. nursing vs. construction)

What is sex typing? (2)

• The association of certain jobs with a specific gender (i.e. "secretary" as a female job, "mechanic" as a male job)

• Sex typing is responsible for inequalities in
  economic, social, and political realms

What is the glass ceiling?

An invisible barrier preventing women and minorities from advancing to higher leadership positions, despite qualifications

What is nonstandard work?

Jobs that are temporary, part-time, or contract-based, often with lower pay and fewer benefits than full-time jobs

What is gender stratification?

A system where men generally hold greater power, prestige, and wealth than women in society

Power

The ability to impose one’s will on others

Prestige

A person’s social ranking and respect based on achievements, status, or occupation

Social Inequality: Wealth

Economic resources used to pay for life’s necessities, including money, property, and assets

Why have women become more involved in the labour force since 1961?

• Increased demand for service sector workers

• Decline in birth rates (fewer children born)

• Financial necessity for families

What is the service sector?

The service sector includes jobs that provide services rather than goods, such as healthcare, education, retail, finance, and hospitality

Income: Four Reasons Why Women Earn Less than Men (4)

1. Differences in education, experience, and seniority

2. Women are involved in sex-segregated, non-standard work

3. Discrimination—women are often paid less for the same jobs

4. Devaluation of work traditionally performed by women

Who was Canada's first and only female Prime Minister, and how long did she serve?

Kim Campbell; she served for 4 months in 1993 after “inheriting” the position from Brian Mulroney (PC party status was lost)

What was the representation of women in Canadian politics in 2013? (3)

• Federal: 64 out of 308 politicians were female

• Provincial: 156 out of 734 politicians were female

• Only 2 out of 4 female Premiers were elected

Socialist Feminism: What are the two sources of women’s oppression? (2)

• Capitalism

• Patriarchy

What do socialist feminists believe? (4)

• Both capitalism and patriarchy must be substantially altered or eliminated

• Capitalists benefit from unpaid labor (i.e. raising children without pay)

• The state intervenes with social programs, increasing federal debt

• Laws should be changed to promote positive social change in society

What do radical feminists believe? (3)

• Women are oppressed simply because they are women, not due to capitalism

• The state is male-dominated and serves as an enemy, not an ally (patriarchy)

• Men are naturally aggressive and seek to dominate women

How does mass media influence beauty norms?

Media reinforces idealized beauty norms that pressure women to meet unrealistic standards

The Body Beautiful: What did Mathews (2000) find about girls and beauty image? (3)

• Girls did not see themselves as passive victims of beauty standards

• Looking better gives access to social groups and power

• Other girls, not boys, were the harshest critics of beauty

What four social groups did Mathews identify in Lethbridge, AB? (4)

• The elite (highest status)

• The “wannabees” (try to fit in, do not fully belong)

• “Life in the middle:” (navigate between the elite and lower-status)

• The fringe (marginalized from the mainstream)

CHAPTER 10: CRIME & DEVIANCE

What do Reiman and Leighton (2013) argue about crime?

They argue that crime is best understood as a "carnival mirror," meaning that the way crime is portrayed in the media distorts reality and differs greatly from actual crime patterns

How is the "typical criminal" characterized in society?

As a young, poor, Black, urbanized male

What is the reality of more pervasive and costly crimes? (2)

• They are often committed by individuals engaged in fraud, tax evasion, consumer deception, medical malpractice, and property crime

• Crime is an illusion in our society

What is crime?

The act of breaking a law

What is deviance?

Non-normative behavior that violates a norm

Can something be a crime but not deviant?

Yes, for example, speeding—many people exceed the speed limit, making it a crime but not necessarily deviant

Can something be deviant but not a crime?

Yes, for example, full-body tattoos may be seen as deviant but are not illegal

What are consensus crimes?

Crimes considered very harmful (mala in se) and carrying the harshest sanctions (e.g., murder, assault)

What are conflict crimes?

Crimes where there is less agreement on their harmfulness (mala prohibita), often varying by culture or society (e.g., drug use, gambling)