plato and aristotle

how does aristotle believes we can gain knowledge?

• aristotle’s empiricism claims we can gain knowledge from experience through the senses and reasoning about the natural world

• we can fully understand something only when we can explain it through the four causes

aristotle’s four causes

• material

• efficient

• formal

• final cause

material cause

• what is something made of

efficient cause

• what brought it into being (usually a person/ activity)

formal cause

• the shape, form, or structure something takes to be a certain thing

final cause

• end goal of the thing built into its nature

how does aristotle’s four causes link to modern scientific process?

• aristotle’s theory of the four causes can be seen as an early form of the scientific method because it attempts to explain why events occur by identifying causes

• … demonstrating how knowledge is gained by observing patterns in nature and forming general explanations

example to show that aristotle’s four causes were an early form of the scientific method

• for example, a scientist could argue that if the efficient cause of fire is applied to a chair, its material cause of wood means the result will be ashes

aquinas quote supporting aristotle’s empiricism

• ‘there is nothing in the mind except what was first in the senses’

what examples of using the four causes does aristotle include in metaphysics book V?

• bronze statue

• silver cup

which of aristotle’s books does he mention a bronze statue and a silver cup?

• metaphysics book V

which of the four causes was most important to aristotle

• final cause- telos

explain why final cause was the most important of the four causes to aristotle

• the final cause explains the purpose of a thing, which gives the fullest understanding of why it exists

• aristotle believed the natural world was teleological, meaning everything has a built- in purpose or end towards which it develops

example of the importance of the final cause

• in physics book II, aristotle argues that the regularity of teeth can be fully understood once we are aware of its final cause of eating

• therefore, we have incisors for cutting and molars for grinding

aristotle’s book containing regularity of teeth

physics book II

counter to aristotle’s final cause

• science is progressing towards explaining everything without the need for the concept of purpose

• telos looks like an outdated scientific concept which people mentally project onto reality but doesn’t actually exist

sean carroll

• physicist

• concluded that purpose is not built into the ‘architecture’ of the universe

darwin’s counter to final cause/ telos

• in ‘on the origin of species’, darwin uses the example of digger wasps to demonstrate that natural processes may not move towards a purposeful end

• digger wasps paralyse their prey so their larvae can consume them alive

darwin’s book

• on the origin of species (1859)

explain aristotle’s view on goodness

• aristotle believed goodness is subjective and based on purpose

• something is seen as ‘good’ if it fulfils its purpose

why does aristotle argue a prime mover must exist?

• everything in motion is moved by something else

• an infinite regress of movers is impossible

• therefore, there must be a first unmoved mover that explains motion in the universe

what observation supports aristotle’s prime mover?

• a rolled ball eventually stops

• however, stars and planets continue moving eternally

• therefore, the umoved first mover must be eternally sustaining motion

how does the prime mover support aristotle’s belief that the natural world is teleological?

• nature moves toward purposes (telos)

• the prime mover is the ultimate final cause

• all change is ultimately directed towards its perfection

aristotle’s quote about all things being attracted to the perfection of the prime mover

• the prime mover ‘produces motion as being loved’

heraclitus quote that supports the idea things are always changing

• ‘a man never steps into the same river twice’

• the world is in a state of constant flux

how does plato believe we can gain knowledge?

• true knowledge can only be gained from rational understanding of the world of the forms

• whilst, our senses perceive a world that is constantly changing so would give us an understanding of a false reality

doxa and episteme meaning

• doxa- mere belief/ opinion from the senses

• episteme- true knowledge

which of plato’s books is allegory of the cave in?

• book VII of plato’s republic (380 BC)

explain the allegory of the cave

• aims to show that most people live in ignorance by trusting the senses, mistaking appearances for reality

• true knowledge is gained when the philosopher escapes this illusion and comes to understand the true world, the world of forms, through reason