Perspectives and Theories of Personality and Motivation

Personality

Individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. A pattern of repeated characteristics that create individuality and consistency in someone.

Type and Trait Theories

Seek to classify people or specific parts of their personality.

Behavioral Perspective of Personality

States that people are a product of their environment.

Biopsychological Perspective of Personality

States that people are a product of their genes.

Social Cognitive Perspective of Personality

States that personality and environment influence each other.

Humanistic Perspective of Personality

Focuses on the positive and healthy aspects of personality.

Psychoanalytic Perspective of Personality

A controversial theory explaining thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through unconscious instincts and desires.

Objective Tests

Questionnaires that reveal personality traits, requiring care for internal and external validity.

Projective Tests

Seek to reveal unconscious thoughts through ambiguous images, though critics argue they reveal more about recent experiences or conscious thoughts.

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

Believed personality was influenced by childhood sexual development and unconscious desires, conflicts, and motivations.

Conscious Mind

The part of the mind that we are fully aware of.

Preconscious

A hazy area of the mind where thoughts or emotions can be retrieved that are outside of consciousness.

Unconscious Mind

The bulk of the mind where desires, memories, and urges are stored.

Psychodynamic Theory

Theories that built upon Freud's work, agreeing on the importance of early childhood experiences and the unconscious, but emphasizing social relationships and environment over sexual motivations.

Humanistic Theory of Personality

Focused on self-fulfillment and the inner desire to cultivate oneself and grow, motivated by a hierarchy of needs.

Hierarchy of Needs

A pyramid of needs starting with basic physiological needs, moving up to safety, companionship, career, and personal potential once lower needs are met.

Self-Actualization

Realizing one's full potential.

Self-Transcendence

Achieving one's purpose beyond the self.

Self-Concept

An important feature in humanistic theory; a positive self-concept often leads to a positive view of the world, and vice-versa.

Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality

Focused on behavior and thoughts within a social context, seeing personality as partly a product of conditioning and partly of innate reaction to and interpretation of events.

Trait Theory of Personality

Concerned with patterns of behavior and motivation called traits; holds that people are made up of an individualized cocktail of traits.

The Big Five Factors

A broader basic set of personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Openness to Experience

How imaginative, practical, or independent a person is.

High Openness Upside

Creative, curious, open to new adventures and ideas, leading to innovation and rich life experiences.

High Openness Downside

Can manifest as lack of focus, impracticality, or prone to unpredictable/risky behavior.

Less Open Upside

Pragmatic, decisive, value consistency and tradition, making them reliable and steadfast.

Conscientiousness

A scale of discipline, organization, and impulsivity.

High Conscientiousness Upside

Strong predictor of success, reliable, hardworking, detail-oriented.

High Conscientiousness Downside

Leads to unhealthy perfectionism, workaholism, or being perceived as rigid, stubborn, and inflexible.

Less Conscientious Upside

Flexible, spontaneous, and can easily adapt to changing plans or new information.

Extraversion

A person's level of sociability or reserve.

High Extraversion Upside

Energetic, outgoing, linked to happiness and achieving social status.

High Extraversion Downside

Perceived as attention-seeking, domineering, or making it difficult to be alone/work independently.

Introversion (Low Extraversion) Upside

Excellent listeners, thoughtful, can focus deeply on tasks without needing external stimulation.

Agreeableness

A person's level of helpfulness, cooperation, and trust.

High Agreeableness Upside

Good social relationships, valued as team players, less likely to get into arguments or criminal trouble.

High Agreeableness

Can make a person a 'pushover,' unable to stand up for their interests, or avoid necessary/healthy conflict.

Less Agreeable

More competitive negotiator, more willing to challenge a bad idea, better able to make difficult/unpopular decisions.

Neuroticism

A scale of anxiousness, satisfaction, and security (vs. Emotional Stability).

Low Neuroticism (High Stability)

Calm and secure, less likely to suffer from depression or fight with romantic partners.

Low Neuroticism (High Stability) Downside

In some cases, extreme stability can lead to being overly relaxed, underestimating threats, or being perceived as unconcerned/unemotional.

High Neuroticism

Can be a powerful motivator, fuel preparation, vigilance, and a strong drive to avoid failure, making a person more cautious and prepared for negative outcomes.

Motivation

The internal and external forces that impel individuals to take action towards a goal.

Primary Needs

Biological needs, such as the requirements for food, water, and sleep.

Secondary Needs

Psychological needs, such as the desire for social approval, love, and belonging.

Animal Instincts

Fixed, unlearned patterns of behavior characteristic of a species.

Drive Reduction Theory

Suggests that behavior is driven by the body's need to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis

A state of internal physiological balance.

Drive

An internal state of tension or arousal (e.g., hunger) that motivates an organism to engage in actions that reduce this tension and restore balance.

Ghrelin

The 'hunger hormone'; increases when the stomach is empty and signals the brain to increase appetite.

Leptin

The 'satiety hormone'; produced by fat cells, and as its levels increase, the hypothalamus registers fullness, reducing the motivation to eat.

Hypothalamus

A crucial brain region that processes hormone signals, working with the pituitary gland to regulate both hunger and satiety.

Arousal Theory

Suggests that motivation is significantly impacted by the amount of stimulation an individual experiences.

Optimal Arousal Level

The level of arousal where individuals feel neither too bored nor too stressed, which they are motivated to maintain.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; states that performance tends to increase with arousal up to a certain point, and then decrease thereafter.

Self-Determination Theory

Distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, positing that individuals have a natural inclination to grow and develop, facilitated by feelings of competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation that originates within an individual, driven by personal enjoyment, interest, or satisfaction in the activity itself.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation that originates outside an individual, driven by external rewards, incentives, or the avoidance of punishment.

Competence

Feeling capable in one's actions.

Autonomy

Feeling a sense of control over one's life and choices.

Relatedness

Feeling a sense of connection with others.

Incentive Theory

Primarily emphasizes that behavior is largely driven by external rewards or punishments.

Sensation Seeking Theory

Suggests that individuals possess varying needs for novel, varied, and complex experiences, which directly impacts their level of arousal.

Experience Seeking

The desire for new or unconventional sensations, such as exploring new cultures or meeting diverse people.

Thrill and Adventure Seeking

The drive to engage in physically risky activities, like skydiving, rock climbing, or bungee jumping.

Disinhibition

The tendency to seek social and recreational situations that allow for relaxation, letting loose, and sometimes acting uninhibited.

Boredom Susceptibility

An individual's tolerance for repetitive or unchanging experiences, influencing their need for constant new stimulation.

Kurt Lewin's Motivational Conflict Theory

Examines how people become motivated when they are presented with a dilemma between two or more options.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Occurs when an individual must choose between two equally desirable and positive outcomes.

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Arises when an individual is faced with a choice between two equally undesirable or negative outcomes.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Characterized by a situation where a single choice or goal has both desirable (positive) and undesirable (negative) aspects simultaneously.