AP Psych Unit 2

Binocular Depth Cues

Using BOTH eyes to determine depth

Convergence

When the eyes rotate inward toward an object to determine its depth

Retinal Clarity

Name and define all the monocular cues and also give the meaning of monocular cue:

Monocular Cues: Using ONE eye to determine depth

Relative Size: Comparing the size of two objects and perceiving depth, the object that appears smaller is perceived further away

Interposition: When the object that is being blocked is perceived further away

Relative Clarity: When an object is blurry/hazy, it seems further away

Texture Gradient: When the object texture becomes more blurry, it is seen as further away

Linear Perspective: Parallel lines meet at the horizon/vanishing point

Perceptual Constancy

An object’s properties are perceived as unchanged even though the stimulus did change

Apparent Movement 

One perceives movement when objects are not actually moving

Concept

An idea that represents a grouping of a collection of similar entitites

Prototype

The best model/exempler of a concept

Schema

A concept that describes the framework of our long term memories (are like bookshelves that hold our memories)

Assimilate

The process of incorporating new information into our preexisting schema, this information fits right into our bookshelf, and we don’t have to accommodate our schema

Accommodate

Have to accommodate your schema to fit new information

Algorithm

A procedure for solving a problem that involveds a series of steps. This is accurate but can take a long time

Availability Heuristic

A short cut where you estimate the likelihood of an event based on how easily example come to your mind

Representative Heuristic

Involves judging the probability of an event by how well the current situation matches a prototype or stererotype

Mental set

Concepts that guide our attention towards specific solutions that have worked in the past

Priming, framing, and confirmation bias are examples

Priming

Unconcious memory, priming is the way a recent experience affects you thoughts, feelings, and actions without you realizing it

Framing

Framing information in a positive or negative way that can effect how someone response or perceives the information

Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that if a random event has happened several times, the opposite outcome will occur

Sunken-Cost Fallacy

Continuing a project or activity even if you don’t enjoy it because you have already invested a lot of time, effort or money

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes- organize, plan, and carry out goals

Creativity

The ability to generate novel ideas and engage in divergent thinking

Divergent Thinking

Thinking outside of normal human thought patterns

Functional Fixedness

Perceiving an object only based on its common use. For example, someone may see a fork’s purpose as a tool for eating only but it can be used to store things

Memory

Knowledge, events, and experiences that are retrieved by the brain

Explicit Memory

Long-term memory of general knowledge

Episodic Memory

Being able to remember personal events

Semantic Memory

Beng able to remember facts and general knowledge

Implicit Memory

(unconcious) Memory of a previous event without awareness of remembering 

Procedural Memory

Long-term memory for tasks and skills 

Prospective Memory

Remebering to do something in the future

Long-Term Potentiation

Neurons that fire and work together

Define working memory, what parts make up the working memory, and what each part means:

Working Memory: the aware you in real time

• Visuospatial Sketchpad: inner visualizer that sees in the mind’s eyes

• Phonological Loop: manipulates auditory information (inner voice)

• Central Executive: (inside out hub from movie) accesses relevant information from long-term memory

• Episodic Buffer: Central executive recalling the pass

Sensory Memory

Storage of sensory information

Iconic Memory

(Eye) Visual stimuli

Echoic Memory

(Echo, ears) Auditory stimuli

Short-Term Memory

The recall of information for only 10-30 seconds after seeing/hearing it

Long-Term Memory

Permanent storage of knowledge and skills

Encoding

Process of getting information INTO the memory system

Storage

Process of RETAINING information

Retrieval

Getting information OUT of memory storage

Levels of Processing Model of Memory

Structural: Shallow- encode the physical appearance

Phonemic: Intermediate- encode sound

Semantic: Deep- encode the meaning and correlates it to existing knowledge

Mnemonic Devices

Used to assist memory

Method of Loci

A mneomic device that correlates each item with a specific image

Chunking

Diving large pieces of information into chunks

Hierarchies

Organizing information into categories and subcategories

Spacing effect

Information learned in short study sessions with space/gaps in between

Massed Practice

Close practiced periods or all together at once

Distributed Practice

Space out periods with long brakes in between

Serial Positioning Effect

People tend to remember things at the beginning and end better

Primacy Effect

Remembering the first item better

Recency Effect

Remembering the most recent/last item better

Rehearsal

Improving memory through repetition

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking information with other things to better access them in the future

Autobiogrphical Memory

Linking new memories to personal experiences to better remember them

Retrograde Amnesia

Not being able to remember past/retro events

Anterograde Amnesia

Not being able to create new memories

Alzheimer’s disease

Causes dememtia, is a neurodegenerative disease

Infantile Amnesia

Not being able to remember childhood events

Recognition

Being able to remember after given a clue

Recall

Being able to directly get inormation from the brain

Retrieval Clues

Triggers that activate the memory

Primary- directly related

Secondary- an item related to an item

Tertiary- more than two-way

Priming

Acts as a retrieval cue

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when context at encoding is the same as retrieval

State-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when biological or psychological state is present during encoding and retrieval

Mood-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when the same mood is present at encoding and retrieval

Testing effect

Taking a test leads to better retention that restudying

Metacognition

Thinking about one’s thinking

The Forgetting Curve

Study memorizing nonsense syllables, sudden drop in retention 

Enoding Failure/Problem

Failure to encode information

Proactive Interference

Old information prevents the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

New informations prevents the recall of old information

Tip-of-the-Tongue

Retrieval problem, trying to retrieve something but you just can’t

Repression

Your brain forgets certain memories to protect itself

Misinformation Effect

Misleading information given to someone instead of the correct information

Source Amnesia

Confusion about the information’s source

Constructive Memory

The brain fills in blanks trying to remember something

Imagination Inflation

Juding an event having occurred when they imagined the event beforehand

Intelligance Quotient

A measure of intelligence based on a score on a test

Wechsler Intelligance Scale

Meausres intelligence using 11 subtests

Psychometric Principles

Measuring the mind

Standardization

Giving a test with consistency

Validity

Measure what it intends to measure

Construct Validity

How much a test measures a thing it is attempting to measure

Predictive Validity 

How much a test correlate with a future variable

Reliability

Similar results each time

Test-Retest Reliability

A measurement of the consistency of results on a test over time

Split-Half Reliability

Comparing one half of the test with the other half and measuring consistency

Stereotype Threat

Negative stereotypes will negatively affect peformance on a test

Stereotype Lift

Positive stereotypes will improve performance on a test

Flynn Effect

Gradual increase in IQ each generation

Aptitude Test

Measures potential

Achievement Test

Measures current skill levels of a given subject

Fixed Mindet

The belief that intelligence is determined at birth and doesn’t change

Growth Mindset

The belief that intelligence can be improved

Gesalt Principles