History 101 Midterm

Price Revolution of the 16th C.

The Price Revolution of the 16th century refers to a period of sustained inflation that occurred in Europe between the late 15th century and early 17th century. This inflationary period was characterized by a significant rise in the prices of goods, particularly foodstuffs, and was driven by several interrelated factors.

Holy Roman Empire

Loose federation of mostly German states and principalities, headed by an emperor elected by the princes. It lasted from 962 to 1806.

Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its ruler

Edict of Nantes

1598 - Granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship.

Dutch Republic

United Provinces of the Netherlands-1st half of 17th century was golden age-govt. consisted of organized confederation of 7 provinces each w/ rep. govt.

Thirty Years' War

Protestant rebellion against the Holy Roman Empire ends with peace of westpahlia.1618-48) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

Absolutism

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.)

Cardinal Richelieu

(1585-1642) Minister to Louis XIII. His three point plan (1. Break the power of the nobility, 2. Humble the House of Austria, 3. Control the Protestants) helped to send France on the road to absolute monarchy.

intendants

official appointed by French king Louis XIV to govern the provinces, collect taxes, and recruit soldiers

English Civil War

Conflict from 1640 to 1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in 1660 following execution of previous king

English Bill of Rights/ Glorious Revolution

series of acts passed by the English Parliament in 1689 that limited the rights of the monarchy and ensured the superiority of Parliament. The Glorious Revolution was the overthrow of James II when Mary, James Protestant daughter and her husband, William III of Orange, landed their army and caused James II to flee to France.

Scientific Revolution

A major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs.

Cosmology

study of the universe as a totality; theory of the origin and structure of the universe

Nicolaus Copernicus

A Polish astronomer who proved that the Ptolemaic system was inaccurate, he proposed the theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system.

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer and mathematician who was the first to use a telescope to study the stars

Universal Law of Gravitation

one of Newton's three rules of motion; it explains that planetary bodies continue in elliptical orbits around the sun because every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity.

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Rene Descartes

17th century French philosopher; wrote Discourse on Method; 1st principle "i think therefore i am"; believed mind and matter were completly seperate; known as father of modern rationalism

New Scientific Method

Experimentation, observation, math calculations and conclusions

English Royal Society

society funded by merchants and scientists and emphasized theoretical science, which allowed them with more options

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

German philosopher and mathematician who thought of the universe as consisting of independent monads and who devised a system of the calculus independent of Newton (1646-1716)

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.

The philosophes

Writers during the Enlightenment and who popularized the new ideas of the time.

the encyclopedia

a book or set of books giving information on many subjects or on many aspects of one subject and typically arranged alphabetically.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) French philosopher. He believed that freedom of speech was the best weapon against bad government. He also spoke out against the corruption of the French government, and the intolerance of the Catholic Church.

Smolny Institute

Women's institute used for secret classified Bolshevik intelligence

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women

Underground Press

these papers questioned mainstream political policies and conventional values, often voicing radical opinions

Salons

Informal social gatherings at which writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas

Estates General

An assembly of representatives from all three of the estates, or social classes, in France.

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by the members of France's National Assembly in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they had drawn up a new constitution

Declaration of the rights of man and citizen

Adopted August 26, 1789, created by the National Assembly to give rights to all (except women).

dictorate

the executive government of France from 1795 to 1799, established after the fall of the National Convention. It consisted of five directors and was marked by political instability, corruption, and economic problems. The Directory was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in a coup, leading to the establishment of the Consulate.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Overthrew the French revolutionary government (The Directory) in 1799 and became emperor of France in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile.

Napoleonic Code (Civil Code)

French civil code created in 1804 that reasserted the revolutionary principles of the equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property as well as restricting rights accorded to women by previous revolutionary laws.

Confederation of the Rhine

League of German States organized by Napoleon in 1813 after defeating the Austrians at Austerlitz. The league collapsed after Napoleon's defeat in Russia.

The German Reforms

The German Reforms were a series of political, social, and economic changes in the early 19th century, driven by the influence of the Napoleonic Wars and the French Revolution. They included the abolition of feudalism, legal and administrative reforms, modernization of the military, and improvements in education. These reforms helped pave the way for the eventual unification of Germany.

The battle of nations

Battle of Nations (1813)

-Alliance (Russia, Britain, Prussia, Austria)

-Defeat a weak and crippled French

Army

-1814-Napoleon abdicated

-Exiled to Elba

-Monarchy restored

-Louis XVIII

Spinning Jenny

This machine played an important role in the mechanization of textile production. Like the spinning wheel, it may be operated by a treadle or by hand. But, unlike the spinning wheel, it can spin more than one yarn at a time. The idea for multiple-yarn spinning was conceived about 1764 by James Hargreaves, an English weaver. In 1770, he patented a machine that could spin 16 yarns at a time. (643, 727)

Coal and Iron

Coal was the backbone to the industrial revolution. Without it the industrial revolution would have never been the same. Coal was a unlimited resource that great Britain obtained and used to fuel the steam engine, trains, boats and tractors. Through coal the iron industry made. Coke was taken from coal and used to burn away impurities in crude iron. This made they iron of much high quality. This iron was used to build new machines and especially trains. symbiotic relationship.

railways

Transformed trade in the nation's interior

industrialization on the continent

-from 1850-1870 there was an increase in mechanization of cotton and textile industries

-became more industrialized and more railroad tracks which stimulated growth in both iron and coal industries

-converted to steam engine

-eliminated intenrational trade barriers

-Gov't helped by allowing then encouraged joint stock investment banks

-Real change in the working and living conditions for the working class came with development of socialist parties but the theory that med them possible was already developed by Karl Marx

the middle classes

the social group between the upper and working classes, including professional and business workers and their families.

romanticism

a movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual.

english gardens

designed at end of 18th century to provide on of the best visual examples of new romanticism. Surrounded by castles and manor houses of Europe's elite, relied on carefully drawn geometric patterns, minutely trimmed hedges and lawns, and symmetrically arranged flowers planted in rows by size and color.

Caspar David Friedrich

19th century German Romantic painter, considered by many critics to be one of the finest representatives of the movement- especially Romantic painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

(1749-1832) A German author who wrote near the end of the Aufklärung, the German Enlightenment. Goethe's morose The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) helped fuel the Sturm und Drang movement, and his two-part Faust (1808, 1832) is seen as one of the landmarks of Western literature

Madam Anne-Louis Stael

a French-Swiss writer and intellectual, known for her influence on Romanticism. A prominent salonnière and political figure, her works, including De l'Allemagne, introduced German Romantic ideas to French audiences. She advocated for individualism, liberty, and the importance of emotions in art and society, challenging the rationalism of the Enlightenment and offering a bridge between Enlightenment thought and Romanticism.

Brothers Grimm

Second half of the 19th century German brothers who collected German fairytales and aided the cause of German nationalism by showing Germans that they shared the same literature and thus similar values.

Klemens von Metternich

This was Austria's foreign minister who wanted a balance of power in an international equilibrium of political and military forces that would discourage aggression

Congress of Vienna

(1814-1815 CE) Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon.

The Concert of Europe

a series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century, devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions

Decembrists

Russian army officers who briefly rebelled against Tsar Nicholas in December 1825

German Fraternities (Burschenschaften)

Student organizations promoting German nationalism and unity

Advocated for democratic Germany

Charles X

set out to restore the absolute monarchy with the help of the ultraroyalists. Tried to repay nobles for lands lost during the revolution, but the liberals in teh legislative assemly opposed him. Eventually, he issued the July Ordinances.

Young Italy

An association under the leadership of Mazzini that urged the unification of the country

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian patriot whose conquest of Sicily and Naples led to the formation of the Italian state (1807-1882).

Camilo Cavour

A strong, ruthless and shrewd leader who furthered italian unification by doing anything and everything to achieve his goal. He was prime minister of Sardinia and ultimately of a unified italy.

Frankfurt Parliament

Unsuccessful attempt to unify Germany in 1848. It intended to write a moderately liberal constitution for a unified Germany, but alienated conservatives, workers and liberals.

Otto Von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire (714)

Wars of German Unification

Bismarck fought three wars to isolate Austria and France and gain territory to create a unified German

-Danish

-Austro-Prussian

-Franco-Prussian

Causes of economic and political instability?

Inflation, wars, poor harvests, weak leadership, and religious conflicts.

Wars of religion in German Lands, France, and Netherlands?

German Lands: Catholic vs. Protestant, Thirty Years' War.

France: Catholics vs. Huguenots, St. Bartholomew's Massacre.

Netherlands: Catholic vs. Protestant, Dutch revolt against Spain.

Who participated in the Thirty Years' War and how did it end?

Major powers: Spain, France, Sweden, Holy Roman Empire. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

Common elements of absolutism?

Centralized power, divine right, control over military, no political opposition.

Paths to absolutism in France vs. England?

France: Centralized power under Louis XIV.

England: Limited by the Civil War and Glorious Revolution.

What was revolutionary about the scientific revolution?

It shifted focus to observation, experimentation, and the scientific method.

Contributions of key figures in the scientific revolution?

Copernicus: Heliocentric theory.

Galileo: Supported heliocentrism with telescopes.

Kepler: Laws of planetary motion.

Newton: Laws of motion and gravity.

How did knowledge spread beyond academics?

Through printed books, pamphlets, and the rise of public salons and coffeehouses.

How did the methods of Bacon and Descartes differ?

Bacon focused on empirical observation and experimentation; Descartes emphasized deductive reasoning and skepticism.

How did science and religion compete for authority?

Science challenged religious views with evidence-based theories, while religion upheld traditional beliefs and divine authority.

What was the driving concept of the Enlightenment?

Reason and the belief in human progress and improvement through education and scientific thought.

Who were the major philosophes?

Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, and Kant.

How were the ideas of the Enlightenment spread?

Through books, salons, pamphlets, newspapers, and gatherings of intellectuals.

Who were the physiocrats and what did they believe?

Economists who believed in the importance of agriculture and free-market principles

What key roles did women play in the Enlightenment?

Women hosted salons, contributed intellectual ideas, and challenged traditional gender roles.

Why was the growth of literacy so important to the Enlightenment

It allowed for the spread of new ideas and knowledge to a broader population.

How would you characterize French society in 1789?

Divided into rigid social classes (Estates), with widespread inequality and economic hardship.

What are the primary causes of each stage of the revolution?

Social inequality, financial crises, and Enlightenment ideas fueled each stage.

Was the revolution successful?

It led to the abolition of the monarchy and the rise of new political ideologies but also resulted in violence and instability.

Who was Napoleon Bonaparte?

A French military leader who became Emperor of France and expanded its territory across Europe.

How did Napoleon consolidate power of conquered territories?

He spread legal reforms (e.g., Napoleonic Code), created satellite states, and ensured loyalty through military control.

How did the German lands respond to occupation?

Resistance grew, leading to nationalist movements and resentment toward French rule.

What led to Napoleon's defeat?

The failed Russian campaign, European coalitions, and internal instability weakened his power.

In which industry did the Industrial Revolution begin?

The textile industry.

Which sector of the industry became a driving force for other changes?

The iron and coal industries.

How did industrialization on the continent differ from England?

The continent lagged behind in infrastructure and technology but eventually caught up through state involvement.

How did industrialization alter the social makeup of the West?

It led to urbanization, the rise of the working class, and changed family and labor structures.

What were the Main Tenets of the Romantic Movement?

Emphasis on emotion, imagination, and individualism.

Celebration of nature, the sublime, and the beauty of the natural world.

Rejection of industrialization and rationalism.

Focus on personal freedom and expression.

Where did Romanticism Begin and How did It Spread?

Romanticism began in late 18th-century Europe, particularly in Germany and Britain.

It spread across Europe through literature, art, and music, influencing countries like France, Italy, and Russia, and later reaching the Americas.

How did Romanticism's Influence on Art, Politics, and Nationalism?

Art: It inspired emotional, dramatic, and nature-focused works, emphasizing individual expression.

Politics: Romanticism supported ideals of personal freedom, revolution, and the rights of the individual.

Nationalism: Romanticism contributed to the rise of national identities by promoting folk culture, history, and a sense of shared heritage.

What were the goals of Metternich at the Congress of Vienna?

Metternich aimed to restore the balance of power in Europe, preserve monarchies, prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas, and maintain peace by creating a stable political order after Napoleon's defeat.

How was the map of Europe redrawn and what were the consequences?

The map was redrawn by reestablishing old borders and creating new states (e.g., the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the German Confederation). The consequences included the suppression of nationalist movements and the reshaping of European alliances.

Was the restoration successful?

The restoration was partially successful in restoring monarchies and stabilizing Europe temporarily, but it failed to suppress all revolutionary and nationalist movements, leading to uprisings later in the 19th century.

How did society respond to the restoration?

Society was divided; while some supported the restoration of monarchies, others, especially liberals and nationalists, opposed the conservative order and sought more democratic reforms, leading to unrest.

What were the main attributes of nationalism as an ideology?

Nationalism emphasized the importance of a shared national identity, culture, language, and history. It advocated for the self-determination of nations and often led to movements for independence or unification.

Who were the leading figures of Italian nationalism and unification?

Key figures included Giuseppe Mazzini (idealist and founder of Young Italy), Count Cavour (politician and strategist), and Giuseppe Garibaldi (military leader).

How was the unification of Germany finally accomplished?

German unification was accomplished through a series of wars led by Prussia, including the Danish War, Austro-Prussian War, and Franco-Prussian War, with Otto von Bismarck orchestrating diplomatic and military strategies to unite the German states under Prussian leadership.