AP Psych | CH2 - Biology of Mind

Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage (1823-1860) was an American railroad construction foreman remembered for his improbable survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior over the remaining 12 years of his life‍—‌effects sufficiently profound that friends saw him as "no longer Gage."

Axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Synaptic Vesicle (Gap/Cleft)

The tiny gap that stores various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic vesicle.

Action Potential

A neural impulse or brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Genes

The basic unit of inheritance. Genes are passed from parents to offspring and contain the information needed to specify physical and biological traits. Most genes code for specific proteins, or segments of proteins, which have differing functions within the body.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Phrenology

The study of bumps on the skull to help reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits.

Aphasia

The impairment of language, usually caused by damage of the left hemisphere to either Broca's area (impairs speech) or Wernicke's area (impairs understanding).

Frontal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex that lies behind the forehead. It is involved in speaking and muscle movements as well as in making plans and judgments.

Parietal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex that lies at the top of the head toward the rear. It receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Temporal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex that lies roughly above the ears. This includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Occipital Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex that lies at the back of the head. This includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Reuptake

The reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by its sending neuron.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Effects of Opiates

They depress neural activity to temporarily lessen pain and anxiety.

Endocrine System

The body's "slow" chemical communication system. It involves a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Role of Pituitary

It monitors and regulates many bodily functions through the hormones that it produces, including growth and sexual/reproductive development and function.

Biological Perspective

Concerned with the links between biology and behavior. Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behavior genetics, and evolutionary psychol-ogy. These researchers may call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Nervous System

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication net- work, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee - jerk response.

Adrenal Glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epi- nephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Lesion

An area of destroyed tissue. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer - generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull. It is also responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem. It controls the heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located at the top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

The "Little Brain" at the rear of the brainstem. Its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

Limbic System

The neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) that is located below the cerebral hemispheres. It is also associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system that are linked to emotion. (Aggression, Fear)

Hypothalamus

A neural structure that lies below the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, etc.), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that cover the cerebral hemispheres. This is the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Glial Cells (glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Sensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres and carries messages between them.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.