Define endemic
disease occurring frequently, at a predictable rate, in a specific location or population
Define carrier
an infected person or other organism, showing no symptoms but able to infect others
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Define endemic
disease occurring frequently, at a predictable rate, in a specific location or population
Define carrier
an infected person or other organism, showing no symptoms but able to infect others
Define disease reservoir
the long-term host of a pathogen, with few or no symptoms, always a potential source of a disease outbreak
Define toxin
a small molecules (e.g. peptide made in cells or organisms) that causes disease following contact or absorption. Toxins often affect macromolecules (e.g. enzymes, cell surface receptors)
Define pandemic
epidemic over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries, affecting a large number of people
Define antigen
molecules that causes the immune system to produce antibodies against it
Define antigenic type
different individuals of the same pathogenic species with different surface proteins, generating different antibodies
Define epidemic
rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of people within a short period of time
Define vector
a person, animal or microbe that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism
Define antibiotic
substance produced by a fungus, which diminishes the growth of bacteria
Define antibody
an immunoglobulin produced by the body’s immune system in response to antigens
Define vaccine
a weakened or killed pathogen, or a toxin or antigen derived from it, which stimulates the immune system to produce an immune response against it without causing infection
What is the pathogen that causes cholera? Is it gram-positive or gram-negative?
How is cholera transmitted?
through contaminated water or food
What are the symptoms of cholera?
How can cholera be prevented?
How can cholera be treated?
What is the pathogen that causes tuberculosis?
Myobacterium tuberculosis
How is tuberculosis transmitted?
What are the symptoms of tuberculosis?
How is tuberculosis treated?
long course of antibiotics but does show some antibiotic resistance
How is tuberculosis prevented?
BCG vaccine → given to babies and, if negative, people up to 16
What is the pathogen that causes smallpox?
Variola major
How is smallpox transmitted?
What are the symptoms of smallpox?
How is smallpox prevented?
vaccination → uses live Vaccina virus (close relative to smallpox virus) → produces strong immune response
How is smallpox treated?
What is the pathogen that causes influenza?
Influenza A,B and C
How is influenza transmitted?
aerosol transmission
What are the symptoms of influenza?
How is influenza prevented?
Why is flu more common in winter than in summer?
What is antigenic drift and what is it caused by?
What is antigenic shift and what is it caused by?
the combination of 2 strands of RNA from 2 viruses that have different combinations of surface proteins → new virus made
Why is the genetic material of influenza so unusual?
it has 8 single strands of RNA instead of 1
What is the role of Haemagglutanin?
role in virus entering host cell
What is the role of Neuraminidase?
role in virus exiting host cell
What is the pathogen which causes malaria and what are the 2 most deadly types?
Plasmodium → P. falciparum and P. vivax
What is malaria transmitted by?
female Anopheles mosquitoes → vectors that infect humans with sporozoites that are in their saliva
What are the symptoms of malaria?
fever
How is malaria prevented?
How is malaria treated?
Why is there no vaccine for malaria?
mutates frequently and produces many antigenic types
Why are antibiotics alone not a cure for cholera?
Why are viruses difficult to treat with drugs?
What is the lytic cycle?
What is a lysogenic virus?
What are the different ways in which a virus can be pathogenic?
What is pathogenicity due to cell lysis?
What is pathogenicity due to toxins?
What is pathogenicity due to cell transformation?
What is pathogenicity due to immune suppression?
How is malaria transmitted?
How does cholera cause dehydration and diarrhoea?
What are the different types of antimicrobials?
Why are antibiotics not harmful to the patient’s cells?
What are broad-spectrum antibiotics?
antibiotics that target many bacteria (both gram-positive and gram-negative)
What are narrow-spectrum antibiotics?
antibiotics that target specific bacteria (either gram-negative or gram-positive)
What do bactericidal antibiotics do?
kill bacteria
What do bacteriostatic antibiotics do?
prevent bacterial multiplication but don’t cause death
How does penicillin work?
What are the 2 types of fungi species used in Penicillin production?
What type of antibiotic is tetracycline?
How does tetracycline work?
What are the 2 sources of antibiotic resistance alleles?
How might bacteria adapt to become resistant to penicillin?
How might bacteria adapt to become resistant to tetracycline?
How does antibiotic resistance in bacteria arise through the use of antibiotics?
What are the causes of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?
What is the innate immune system?
physical, chemical and biological defences that are used to reduce the chance of pathogens entering the body
Which structures make up the innate immune system and how are they a barrier to infection?
What is the adaptive immune system?
immune response that produces a specific response to each antigen
What are the 2 components of the adaptive response?
What is the difference between the humoral response and the cell-mediated response?
What happens in the humoral response?
What happens in the cell-mediated response?
Where are T-lymphocytes produced and where do they mature?
Where are B-lymphocytes produced and where do they mature?
What is the structure of an antibody?
What happens in the primary immune response?
What happens in the secondary immune response?
What is active immunity?
when the body makes its own antibodies, stimulated by either infection or vaccination
Is active immunity temporary or long-lasting? Why?
What can be used to make a vaccine?
Why do vaccinations create active immunity?
Why are boosters needed for vaccinations?
What is passive immunity?
when the body receives antibodies produced by another individual
When does passive immunity naturally happen?
When are antibody injections given?
Is passive immunity temporary or long-lasting? Why?
What is needed for a vaccine to successfully protect against a disease?
What is herd immunity?
when enough people are vaccinated that there are fewer live pathogens in the population, so even people who haven’t been vaccinated have some protection
Why might some people not get vaccinated?
What must the authorities consider when making a decision about mass vaccination, apart from ethical objections?
cost effectiveness
Are vaccinations compulsory in the UK? Why? Are there any complications with this?
What is the argument against vaccinations regarding side effects? What are common side effects?
considering complexity of living systems, it would be extraordinary for vaccinations to only affect one aspect of the body’s biochemistry
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common side effects include:
Why are severe side effects from vaccinations rare?
vaccinations are rigorously tested