VCE Psychology Unit 3 AOS 2

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience

Behaviourist approach to learning

emphasises the study of observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning, without regard to underlying mental processes

Classical conditioning

a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli

Stimulus

any object or event that produces a response from an organism

Response

a reaction by an organism to a stimulus

Neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, any object or event that does not normally produce a predictable response

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, any stimulus that consistently produces a particular unconditioned response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the response that occurs automatically as a result of the unconditioned stimulus; is reflexive or involuntary

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response but eventually becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response

Conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned or acquired response to the conditioned stimulus

Operant conditioning

a type of learning whereby the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future

Three-phase model of operant conditioning

a description and explanation of operant conditioning as having three parts that occur in a specific sequence: (1) antecedent; (2) behaviour; (3) consequence

Operant

any response (or set of responses) that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence

Antecedent

he stimulus that precedes a specific behaviour, signals the probable consequence for the behaviour and therefore influences the occurrence of the behaviour

Behaviour

in the three-phase model of operant conditioning, the voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus

Consequence

the environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour and has an effect on the occurrence of the behaviour

Reinforcement

is a process in which a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows

Reinforcer

any stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows

Positive reinforcer

is a stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying consequence.

Positive reinforcement

the presentation of a positive reinforcer following a desired response, thereby strengthening a response or making it more likely to occur again by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence

Negative reinforcer

any unpleasant or aversive stimulus that, when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a desired response

Negative reinforcement

the removal of an unpleasant stimulus

Punishment

the delivery of an unpleasant consequence following a response, or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response

Negative punishment

the removal or loss of a stimulus and thereby decreasing (or weakening) the likelihood of a response occurring again.

Positive punishment

the presentation (or introduction) of a stimulus and thereby decreasing (or weakening) the likelihood of a response occurring again

Observational learning

the acquisition of information, skills or behaviour through watching the performance of others, either directly or indirectly via some form of media or other means

Vicarious conditioning

in observational learning, when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished and later behaves in the same way, in a modified way, or refrains from doing so as a result of the observation

Attention

the first step in the observational learning process that involves closely watching a model's behaviour and its consequences

Retention

the second step in the observational learning process that involves making a mental representation of the observed behaviour so the behaviour may be reproduced when needed

Reproduction

the third step in the observational learning process. Imitation of behaviour that has been attended to and retained in memory is dependent on the learner's mental and physical capabilities

Motivation

the fourth step in the observational learning process. The desire or drive to reproduce the observed behaviour

Reinforcement (observational learning)

influences the motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increases the likelihood of reproduction

Country

the term often used by Aboriginal peoples to describe the lands, waterways and seas to which they are connected. The term contains complex ideas about law, place, custom, language, spiritual belief, cultural practice, material sustenance, family and identity

Kinship

a system of social organisation for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in which everyone is related to each other in defined ways. Determines an individual's relationships and responsibilities to people and to Country

Memory

processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning; often described as neurological representation of learning

Encoding

in relation to memory, conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in memory

Storage

in relation to memory, retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

in relation to memory, recovery of stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness for use

Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model

a representation and explanation of memory as consisting of three separate stores called sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory, differing in function, capacity and duration

Sensory memory

the entry point of memory where new incoming sensory information is stored in its original, raw state for a very brief time

Sensory registers

subsystems of sensory memory that receive and store a specific type of sensory information

Iconic memory

visual sensory memory for incoming visual information that stores visual images in their original sensory form for about a third of a second

Echoic memory

auditory sensory memory for incoming auditory information that stores sounds in their original sensory form for about 3 or 4 seconds

Short-term memory (STM)

a memory system with limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed in some way; also maintains information in conscious awareness and functions as 'working memory'

Working memory

also known as short-term memory. Enables us to actively 'work on' and manipulate information while we undertake our everyday tasks

Long-term memory (LTM)

a memory store that holds a potentially unlimited amount of information for a very long time, possibly permanently

Explicit memory

long-term memory that can be consciously retrieved and stated ('memory with awareness')

Episodic memory

the long-term explicit memory of personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place

Semantic memory

long-term explicit memory of facts and knowledge about the world

Implicit memory

long-term memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval ('memory without awareness')

Procedural memory

the long-term implicit memory of skills that have been learned previously

Classically conditioned memory

implicit memory of a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus acquired through classical conditioning, e.g. simple conditioned reflex responses

Hippocampus

a structure in the medial temporal lobe, deep within the brain and part of the limbic system; crucial role in the formation, encoding and consolidation of new long-term explicit memories and their transfer to the cortex for storage

Consolidation

the neurobiological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring following a learning experience

Amygdala

a small structure in the medial temporal lobe, deep within the brain and part of the limbic system; involved in emotional reactions (particularly fear and anger) and formation of a wide variety of emotional memories

Neocortex

the largest and most recently evolved part of the brain's cerebral cortex. The storage place of long-term explicit memories

Basal ganglia

a group of structures deep within the brain, involved in the generation of voluntary movements and long-term implicit memories involving motor skills

Habituation

the process of growing accustomed to a stimulus and decreasing responsiveness to it

Cerebellum

structure at the base of the brain with multiple roles. In relation to memory, involved in formation of long-term motor skill memories and stores implicit memories of simple conditioned reflexes

Alzheimer's disease

a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes

Aphantasia

absence of visual imagery

Mnemonic

any technique used to assist memory

Acronym

a pronounceable word formed from the first letters of a group of words

Acrostic

making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing a sentence, phrase or other composition using the first letters of the information to be remembered

Method of loci

a mnemonic device for which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific locations

Songline

a navigational route comprising a sequence of locations used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples which may also serve as mnemonic