AP United States Government and Politics Notes (All Units Eventually)

Limited government

a government’s power cannot be absolute; The ideal of limited government is ensured by the interaction of these principles: Separation of powers, Checks and balances, Federalism and Republicanism

Natural rights

all people have certain rights that cannot be taken away

Popular sovereignty

all government power comes from the consent of its people

Republicanism

the democratic principle that the will of the people is reflected in government debates and decisions by their representatives

Social Contract

an implicit agreement among the people in a society to give up some freedoms to maintain social order

Representative democracy

a system of government in which all eligible citizens to vote on representatives to make public policy for them ; can take several forms including the following models: i. Participatory democracy, ii. Pluralist democracy, iii. Elite democracy

Participatory democracy

emphasizes broad participation in politics and civil society

Pluralist democracy

emphasizes group-based activism by nongovernmental interests striving for impact on political decision making

Elite democracy

emphasizes limited participation in politics and civil society

Declaration of Independence

drafted by Thomas Jefferson (with help from Adams and Franklin), restates the philosophy of natural rights, and provides a foundation for popular sovereignty

U.S. Constitution

an example of a social contract and establishes a system of limited government; provides the blueprint for a unique form of democratic government in the United States

Federalist 10

focused on the superiority of a large republic in controlling the “mischiefs of faction,” delegating authority to elected representatives and dispersing power between the states and national government

Brutus 1

adhered to popular democratic theory that emphasized the benefits of a small, decentralized republic while warning of the dangers to personal liberty from a large, centralized governmen

Articles of Confederation

specific incidents and legal challenges that highlighted key weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation are represented by the: i. Lack of centralized military power to address Shays’ Rebellion ii. Lack of an executive branch to enforce laws, including taxation iii. Lack of a national court system iv. Lack of power to regulate interstate commerce v. Lack of power to coin mone

Anti-Federalist

opposed the ratification of the Constitution and wanted more power reserved to state governments rather than a strong central government

Federalist

supported ratification of the Constitution and a strong central government

Democracy

a system of government in which power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or through freely elected representatives

Faction

a party or group that is often contentious or self-seeking

Shay’s Rebellion

an armed uprising in western Massachusetts in opposition to high taxation and insufficient economic policies that exposed concern over the weaknesses of the national government under the Articles of Confederation

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

created a dual (bicameral) system of congressional representation with the House of Representatives based on each state’s population and the Senate representing each state equally. This was a compromise between two proposed Congress: the Virginia Plan (population based) and the New Jersey plan (state based).

Electoral College

created a system for electing the president by electors from each state rather than by popular vote or by congressional vote

3/5ths Compromise

provided a formula for calculating a state’s enslaved population for purposes of representation in the House and for taxation

Constitutional Convention

a meeting of delegates from the several states in 1787 intended to revise the Articles of Convention and ultimately drafted the United States Constitution in establishing a stronger central government

Article V / Amendment process

entailed either a two-thirds vote in both houses or a proposal from two-thirds of the state legislatures, with final ratification determined by three-fourths of the states

Ratification

the act of consenting to the U.S. Constitution through state ratification conventions, requiring 9 of the 13 states to ratify per Article VII of the U.S. Constitution

Separation of powers

specific and separate powers delegated to Congress, the president, and the courts allow each branch to check and balance the power of the other branches, ensuring no one branch becomes too powerful ; creates multiple access points for stakeholders and institutions to influence public policy

Checks and balances

allow legal actions to be taken against public officials deemed to have abused their power. courts allow each branch to check and balance the power of the other branches, ensuring no one branch becomes too powerful.

Federalist 51

explains how constitutional provisions of separation of powers and checks and balances control potential abuses by majorities

Impeachment/Removal (impeachment process)

the House formally charges an official with abuse of power or misconduct 2nd part if the official is convicted in a Senate impeachment trial

Federalism

the system of government in the United States in which power is shared between the national and state governments

Enumerated powers

written in the Constitution

Implied powers

not specifically written in the Constitution but are inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause

Reserved powers

those not delegated or enumerated to the national government but are reserved to the states, as stated in the Tenth Amendment

Concurrent powers

shared between both levels of government such as the power to collect taxes, the power to make and enforce laws and the power to build roads

Revenue sharing

national funding with almost no restrictions to the states on its use and is the least used form of funding

Categorical grants

national funding that is restricted to specific categories of expenditures, is preferred by the national government, and is the most commonly used form of funding

Block grants

national funding with minimal restrictions to the states on its use and is preferred by the states

Mandates

requirements by the national government of the states

Tenth Amendment

the last of the Bill of Rights to define the balance of power between the federal government and the states ; establishes reserved powers of the states

Fourteenth Amendment

Due Process Clause and Equal Protection Clause as applied to the states

Commerce clause

gives the national government the power to regulate interstate commerce, but Supreme Court interpretations can influence the extent of this power

Necessary & Proper clause / Elastic clause

gives Congress the power to make laws related to carrying out its enumerated powers, but Supreme Court interpretations can influence the extent of these powers

Supremacy Clause

gives the national government and its laws general precedence over states’ laws, but Supreme Court interpretations may affect when specific actions exceed this constitutional power

Formal Power

power delegated to a branch of government explicitly listed in the U.S. Constitution

Informal Power

powers not listed in the U.S. Constitution but implied or granted

Bicameral

two house legislature. Each house in Congress is designed differently creating differences in the policy making process. This also leads to fragmented power between small and large states and slowed the legislative process encouraging carful deliberation and compromise.

Senate

designed to represent states equally ; has 100 members and debate is less formal than the House ; One third of the Senate is elected every two years, creating a continuous legislative body ; bills are typically brought to the floor by unanimous consent, but a Senator may request a hold on a bill to prevent it from getting to the floor for a vote. During debate, a Senator can use the filibuster or make a motion for cloture

House

designed to represent the people ; Debate in the House, which has 435 members, is more formal than in the Senate ; all House members are elected every two years ; All revenue bills must originate in the House. Rules for debate in the House on a bill are established by the Rules Committee. The House can form a Committee of the Whole in order to expedite debate on bills. An individual representative in the House can file a discharge petition to have a bill brought to the floor for debate, but it is rarely done

Federal budget

generated by Congress to address both mandatory and discretionary spending

Oversight

congressional authority to ensure legislation is implemented as intended, including i. review, monitoring, and supervision of bureaucratic agencies ii. Investigation and committee hearings of bureaucratic activity iii. Power of the purse ; serves as a check of executive authorization

Speaker of the House

elected by a majority of House members and presides over the legislative work in the House

Bill

a draft or proposed law in Congress

Committee

conduct hearings and debate and mark up bills with revisions and additions ; leadership in committees is determined by the majority political party ; a majority of bills do not pass committees to floor debate and vote

Committee hearing

a method of both houses by which committee members gather and analyze information, evidence, and testimony in deliberation over a bill prior to full chamber debate and vote

Mark up

additions and/or revisions of a bill done in congressional committee

Rules Committee

establishes rules for debate on a bill in the House

Committee of the Whole

a committee formed in the House to expedite debate on bills

Discharge petition

a filing by a House member to have a bill brough to the floor for debate, but rarely done

Unanimous consent

a typical Senate procedure to bring bills to the floor for debate and vote

Hold

a filing by a Senator to prevent a bill from getting to the floor for a vote

Filibuster

a tactic to prolong debate and delay or prevent a vote on a bill

Cloture

a procedure to end a debate

Conference committee

meets when a bill passed by both chambers on the same topic has variation in its wording and attempt to reconcile those differences

Mandatory spending

required by law for entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid

Entitlements

any government provided or government managed benefit or service to which some or all individuals are entitled

Social Security

a social insurance program funded by a payroll tax on current employers and employees to be redistributed to qualifying individuals for retirement, disability, or survivor benefits

Medicare

a federal government subsidized healthcare program for qualified elderly Americans

Medicaid

a federal government subsidized healthcare program for qualified low income households

Discretionary spending

approved on an annual basis for defense spending, education, and infrastructure ; as entitlement costs grow, discretionary spending opportunities will decrease unless tax revenues increase, or the budget deficit increases

Infrastructure

a set of facilities, structures, and utilities developed, owned, operated, and maintained by the federal, state, and/or municipal government ; includes highways, roads, railroads, bridges, ports, airports, public transportation, water and sewage systems, electrical grids, and broadband systems

Pork barrel

funding for a local project in a larger appropriation bill

Logrolling

(combining several pieces of legislation into one bill to secure enough votes for passage) subject to clarification

Partisan voting

when members of Congress vote based on their political party affiliation

Polarization

when political attitudes move toward ideological extremes

Gridlock

a situation in which no congressional action on legislation can be taken due to a lack of consensus

Reapportionment

redistribution of congressional seats to the several states based on the U.S. Census held every 10 years

Redistricting

redrawing of congressional districts by state legislatures based on congressional reapportionment

Gerrymandering

redrawing of congressional districts with the intent to create undue advantage for a political party

Divided government

when one party controls the presidency and the other party controls at least one of the chambers of Congress

Diversity of Congress

Most members or Congress are lawyers or businesspeople. The members of both houses have always been largely White. The House is more diverse than the Senate, which is almost exclusively White. The ration of men to women in both the House and Senate is about five to one. Most election years leave both houses roughly evenly split between Democrats and Republicans, with one or two independents in each.

House of Representatives

435 members, Two-Year Terms. A representative must be al least 25 years olds, an American citizen for 7 years, and a resident of the state from which he or she is elected. The _____ is designed to represent the population, leading to different numbers of representatives from different states. The _____ has always been much larger than the Senate. As a result, it has a more formal structure and is governmened by stircter rules. Debate is much more restricted in the ____ than in the Senate. Members of the ____ have always been elected by eligible voters. When the Constitution was ratified, the _____ of Representatives was the government’s only body directly elected by the people.

Senate

100 members, Six-year terms. A senator must be at least 30 years old, an American citizen for 9 years, and a resident of the state from which he or she is elected. The _____ is designed to represent states equally. The _____ is smaller and thus less formally organized than the House of Representatives. In contrast to the House, the _____ operates more on informal understandings. Senators were originally chosen by state legislatures. The 17th Amendment (1913) mandated that senators be elected by voters in each state.Senators were originally chosen by state legislatures. The 17th Amendment (1913) mandated that senators be elected by voters in each state.

Enumerated Powers of Congress

Congress ultimately has to pass the federal budget. They may cut funds to an agency, which can serve as a “legislative veto” on the president. Congress is charged with raising revenue by levying taxes. Congress has the power to coin money. Congress solely has the power to declare war. Congress has the power to maintain the armed forces by approving military budgets and creating or dismantling sectors of the Department of Defense. The Senate must confirm the Secretary of state and foreign ambassadors (majority vote) appointed by the president, as well as ratify all treaties by a 2/3 vote.

Implied Powers of Congress

Congress can enact legislation that addresses a wide range of economic, environmental, and social issues based on the Necessary and proper clause.

Exclusive Power of the House

Initiates revenue bills. Brings impeachment charges against the president, vice president, and all U.S. civil officers. Chooses the president when the Electoral College is deadlocked. Power is usually hierarchical.

Exclusive Powers of the Senate

Ratifies treaties negotiated by the president. Possesses the sole power to try of judge impeachment cases. Confirm judicial appointments, including United States attorneys, federal judges, and Supreme Court justices. Confirms executive appointments, including cabinet heads, the director of the F.B.I. and the U.S. attorney general. Chooses the vice president when the Electoral College is deadlocked. Power is more evenly distributed among senators. Senators have the ability to filibuster, or use unlimited debate, meaning that they talk so long that they delay or even prevent voting on a piece of legislation. Senators can stop a filibuster by voting for cloture, which halts debate. This rarely happens because it requires 60 votes; the majority party usually holds fewer than 60 seats, making cloture nearly impossible.

Policy Agenda

A list of subjects or issues to which government officials will agree to consider as part of public policymaking.

Cabinet

An advisory body to the President made up of the heads of the 15 executive departments and the Vice President.

Executive Office of the President

Comprises the offices and agencies that support the work and agenda of the President ; consists of the White House Office (headed by the Chief of Staff), National Security Council, and Office of Management and Budget (OMB).

Veto

Formal power of the President to check Congress, but vetoes can be overridden with a 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress.

Pocket Veto

Formal power of the President to check Congress, and cannot be overridden with a 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress.

Line item veto

The (unconstitutional) authority of the President to reject or veto particular provisions of a bill passed by Congress.

Commander in Chief

Formal foreign policy power of the President.

Executive Agreement

Informal foreign policy power of the President.

Treaty

Formal foreign policy of the President.

Bargaining and Persuasion

Informal power of the President to secure congressional action.

Executive Order

An informal power to allow the president to manage the federal government and are implied by the president’s vested executive power or by power delegated by Congress.

Signing statement

An informal power of the President to inform Congress and the public of the president’s interpretation of laws passed by Congress and signed by the president.

Senate Confirmation

An important check on appointment powers but there can be a potential for conflict based on who is chosen by the president for appointments, including: i. Cabinet members ii. Ambassadors iii. Some positions within the Executive Office of the President iv. Supreme Court Justices, Court of Appeals judges, and District Court judges, but the president’s longest lasting influence lies in life-tenured judicial appointments.

Congressional Agenda

The formal list of policies Congress is considering at any given time ; policy conflicts with the congressional agenda can lead the president to use executive orders and directives to the bureaucracy to address the president’s own agenda items.