BIOL 319 Exam 1 Study Guide: Key Terms & Definitions

4 Types of tissues

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous

Homeostasis

Balance in bodies internal environment

How does living organisms responding to stimuli relate to hemodynamics

hemodynamics is how your BLOOD reacts/move in your body, living organisms react to stimuli, and could alter hemodynamics

Which tissues have RMPs

ALL TISSUES (muscle, nervous, epithelial, connective)

-BUT ONLY Muscle and Nervous tissue are excitable = can use RMP to generate action potential

What is an RMP

resting membrane potential - difference in charge across membranes

Ultrasound vs radiograph

Ultrasound: sound waves pass into body and bounce back to receiver; visualized as a sonogram

Radiograph: Electromagnetic radiation moves through body and is exposed on photographic plate; creating radiograph

What is an ultrasound used for?

1. View the uterus and ovaries during pregnancy to monitor baby health

2. Diagnose gallbladder disease

3. evaluate blood flow

4. Guide a needle for biopsy or tumor treatment

5. Examine a breast Lump

6. Check for thyroid gland

7. Find genital and prostate problems

Lithotripsy

Extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy - ultrasound waves are used to break the kidney stone into smaller pieces

Basic function of lymphatic system

Capillaries leak fluid all the time, even when not injured, it is the duty of the lymphatic system to collect the leaked fluid from the capillary beds

Popliteal

behind the knee

Which tissues are capable of generating action potentials

Both nervous and muscle tissue can generate action potentials

5 physiologically relevant ions

sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chloride

What is the definition of physiology

1. What it is made of

2. How it looks functioning properly

3. How it looks when functioning improperly

4. What type of pharmacology or procedures can we use to fix it

5. Overtime things tend to breakdown

4 physiologically relevant organic molecules (macromolecules)

1. Carbohydrates

2. Proteins

3. Lipids

4. Nucleic Acid

4 excretory organs

Skin, kidney, liver, colon

What protects the kidney

Ilium, abdominal fat, and the last three ribs

EPO (hormone) from the kidney. Function.

EPO from the kidney binds to receptors in red marrow cavities to increase red blood cells (hematopoiesis)

feedback inhibition

Homeostasis is regulated by feedback loops that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome

There are both positive and negative feedback loops

Feed forward stimulation loop example

Feed forward stimulation loops = positive feedback loops

- Effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed

Example: parturition (pregnancy)

What and where are baroreceptors?

Baroreceptors detect pressure

Located in transitional epithelium: cervix, bladder

Temperature centers in the brain are located in the...

Hypothalamus

Hormones that are the major effectors of one's metabolism

Thyroxin, Growth hormone, and respective se hormones

Goblet cells

secrete mucus, which is a defense

Endocrine vs exocrine

Endocrine is secretion and exocrine is excretion (waste)

Endocrine: no open contact with exterior; no ducts; have an extensive network of blood vessels; produce hormones

Exocrine: open contact maintained with exterior by way of ducts that open onto the free surface of the epithelium

secretion vs excretion

Secretion: creation and transfer of something within the body; Positive

excretion: waste product

Ilium vs ileum

Ilium is a part of the coxal bone and protects the kidney

Ileum is the lower portion of the small intestine

Cognition

One of the four separating traits of humans

Our development of the prefrontal cortices allow us to engage in cognition (Personality, memory, think and reason & cause and effect)

endothelial vs epithelial cells

Endothelial: (type of epithelium) single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood and lymphatic vessels

Epithelial: thin and continuous layer of compactly packed cells with an intracellular matrix, lines the surfaces of organs and surfaces of blood vessels throughout the body. epithelial cells are AVASCULAR, but gases can DIFFUSE in and out

What is a collapsed lung called?

pneumothorax

If there is an increase in pressure in the interpleural (in between visceral and parietal pleural) space the lung may collapse

Serous membrane

Serous membranes covers and lines the body cavities of organs

Secretes serous fluid = sliding (LESS FRICTION)

peritoneum and mesentery

Peritoneum: lines the abdominopelvic cavity

Mesentery: regions of double-folded visceral peritoneum that is attached to certain points to the posterior abdominopelvic wall

Significance of being a deuterostome

Deuterostomes lead to body cavities

Apoptosis

programmed cell death

How many muscle types

Skeletal - voluntary

Cardiac and Smooth - involuntary

Actin in a non-muscle conjuncture means what to us at this juncture

Metastasize (cancer spread) & ameboid movement

Biopsies...sent to who? Why? 3 main questions answered regarding the biopsy.

Biopsy (sample tissue) sent to pathologists

Sent to pathologists to aid in diagnosis and treatment

3 questions: can we biopsy it? Is it malignant? Can we treat it?

Defenses!!! Issues with defenses?? Vomiting and diarrhea get out of hand potentially means what physiologically?

Our defenses likes sneezing, coughing, fever, vomiting, etc. are there to aid us

Our defenses paradoxically can become overzealous leading to morbidity/medical issues

Medulla oblongata (what centers)

Has heart rate centers, blood rate centers, respiration centers and pressure centers

Compliant vs noncompliant organs

Compliant organs are those that give and stretch (think transitional epithelium i.e bladder, cervix)

Non-compliant organs are ones that do not give/stretch (i.e kidney)

Kidney stones.....ureter vs urethra. Where IS the stone? Why does location matter?

Urethra: expulsion of urine

ureter: take urine from kidney to bladder

The stone is in the ureters, if the stone reaches the bladder it can be passed out in urine.

If the stone is stuck in the ureter, it may cause severe pain

ECM

extracellular matrix

Can contain collagen, reticular fibers, elastin fibers and "ground substance" along with interstitial fluid

Hydroxyapatite

Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

- typically 7-10% of our bones remodeled every year

- rigid and firm portion of bone

- Found in both bones and enamel

Hemodynamics

Study of flowing blood and through what it flows

Adipose tissues

Yellow adipose tissue: white at birth but turns yellow with age

Brown adipose tissue: color from cytochromes and is specialized to generate heat

Alveoli of lung and pulmonary capillary beds; one endothelial layer and one epithelial layer. Why so thin? Alveoli and capillary beds are SO THIN they appear CLEAR!! Why?

These cell layers need to be thin so that gas can come in and out (gas exchange)

Surfactant

Surfactant helps to keep alveoli open

produced in utero in weeks 24-28

Osteoblasts vs Osteoclasts vs Osteocytes

Osteoblasts = Build! Secrete collagen first the hydroxyapatite

Osteocytes = mature bones cells

Osteoclasts = Cleave bones

Tendon vs Ligament & Strain vs Sprain

Tendons: connect muscle to bone, strain

Ligaments: connect bone to bone, sprain

very slow to heal

Neuron vs Nerve

Neuron is one cell that has the ability to produce electrical signals called action potentials

Nerve is 1000s of neurons bundled together

multipolar neuron

Function in decision making, intraneuronal and control function of the nervous system

afferent vs efferent

afferent (sensory) - Going into something

efferent (motor) - Going away from something

Myelination! Which glial cells are involved AND which cell myelinates what specifically?

Glial cells create sheath around axon called myelin

Glial cells are support cells of the brain, spinal cord and nerves

- nourish, protect and insulate neurons

Oligodendrocytes = myelination (CNS)

Schwann cells = myelination (PNS)

Anatomy of neuron

One cell

Cell body: contains nucleus

Axon: cell process; conducts impulse away from cell body; usually only one per neuron

Dendrites: cell processes: receive impulse from other neurons; can be many per neuron

Number and types of vertebrae

cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5), caudal (coccyx) (4)

Marrow cavities; types; functionality

Red marrow: PRODUCES NEW BLOOD CELLS Hematopoietic tissue surrounded by a framework of reticular fibers. Produces red and white blood cells

Yellow marrow: STORES LIPIDS yellow adipose tissue; does not produce blood cells

- In children yellow marrow replaces much of red marrow

Osteon, Trabeculae, canaliculi

Osteon: Central canals are surrounded by lamellae

Trabeculae: Interconnecting rods of bone (SPONGY)

Canaliculi: small canals found in between lacuna, allow for "communication between central canal and osteocyte

Bone remodeling and hormones associated with it

Typically 7-10% if our bones remodel every year

4 hormones include:

- Calcitonin

- Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

- Calcitriol ( Vitamin D)

- Estrogen

Spongy vs Compact Bone

Spongy Bone

- Located in Epiphysis

- Has trabeculae

- strong but not very dense

- in living bones the space between trabeculae is filled with marrow.

- Covered with endosteum

Compact Bone

- Located in Diaphysis

- More mineralized

- Dense

Diaphysis vs Epiphysis

Diaphysis

- shaft of a long bone

Epiphysis

- Upon the end of a bone

Cartilage types - Where is articular cartilage?? how fast does cartilage heal and why?

Types (All AVASCULAR)

- Hyaline: allow for articulation

- Fibrocartilage: intervertebral discs

- elastic: Return to original shape after being stretched

Articular cartilage is located at the ends of bones and is a form of hyaline cartilage

Cartilage heals very slow because it is avascular

periosteum vs endosteum

Periosteum: covers outer layer of bone and consists of two layers

Endosteum: covers spongy bone, lines central canals (Haversian) and is a single layer

Defense...mucociliary escalator....stomach acid... Are these defenses always positive in terms of our physiological responses

Mucociliary escalator

- uses cilia to move mucus across the surface of cells

- up the trachea ad bronchi

Stomach acid

- helps maintain neutral pH

These defenses are not always positive, excess mucous can lead to cystic fibrosis

embryonic germ layers (3) can form what in the adult

1. Endoderm (inner skin)

- inner layer

- form linings of digestive tract

2. Mesoderm (middle skin)

- middle layer

- form tissues such as muscle, bone, blood vessels

3. Ectoderm (outer skin)

- outer layer

- form skin and neuroectoderm, which forms nervous system; neural crest cells give rise to peripheral nerves, skin pigment cells, medulla of the adrenal gland, and face tissue

What is living and nonliving tissue when looking at a person, what are the advantages of non-living tissue?

Skin, hair, nails are NOT living

Eyes, teeth are living

Non-living skin provides protection, helps regulates temperature, prevents water loss, helps produce vitamin D.

Ureters vs urethra; which gender typically incurs MORE UTIs? Why?

Ureters connect kidneys to bladder

Urethra is urine expulsion from bladder

Females typically experience more UTIs, because it is easier for bacteria to enter the urethra

Keratin - benefit....found where??

Keratin

- Keratin is found on the outer layer of the skin (epidermis)

- The benefit of keratin is that it helps protect against abrasions, forms a barrier against infection and reduces water loss

desmosomes and gap junctions

Desmosomes: disk shaped regions of cell membrane; often found in areas that are subjected to stress

Gap Junctions: protein channels that aid in intercellular communication

- allows ions and small molecules to pass through

- coordinate function of cardiac and smooth muscle

*Intercalated disks (between cardiac muscle cells) have gap junctions and desmosomes

Sebum?? Where?

group of oils and triglycerides

-lubricates and protects skin

Where: Sebaceous glands (holocrine)

Cerumen? Where?

Earwax

Where: ceruminous glands (apocrine)

merocrine vs apocrine vs holocrine

All modes of exocrine gland

Merocrine (sweat/salvary glands)

- exocytosis

Apocrine

- pinched off fragments of gland cells; mammary glands and ceruminous glands

Holocrine: (zits/pimple)

- shedding of entire cells, sebaceous glands

Local injury....histamine.....vasodilation. Why??

When injured capillaries get wider

Histamines: causes inflammation

Vasodilation: blood vessels get wider allowing for more blood to flow through

Histamine and vasodilation aid in the repair process

3 specific protein of the ECM

1. Collagen: Main structural protein, strong, flexible, inelastic

2. Reticular fiber: fill space between tissues and organs, forms branching networks

3. Elastic fiber: returns to original shape after distension or compression

"Pinched skin stay pinched as we get older..." Why?

As we age elastin fibers lose their "elasticity" cause our skin to remain as it is.

hyaluronic acid

Polysaccharide, good lubricant, helps retain water in the skin

- Hydrophilic

Synovial membranes produce fluid rich in hyaluronic acid

Mammary glands vs breast tissue

Mammary glands are in all mammals whereas breast tissue is found on primates

What is the cell distance that oxygen can diffuse to tissues? And if a tissue is beyond this distance??

Oxygen can diffuse 6-8 cells, cells that are not receiving oxygen are dead.

Elastic cartilage location

external ear, epiglottis

Blood cell types

Red blood cells (erythrocytes) - NO nuclei and NO mitochondria, only way to make ATP via glycolysis

White blood cells (leukocyte) - respond to injury or infection

Platelets (thrombocytes) - involved with clotting

Lipid....fat....triglyceride....categorization

Lipid is a macromolecule, fat is a type of lipid and triglycerides are the most abundant fat in humans

Membranes that decrease friction

Mucous membranes

- line cavities open to outside of body

- secrete mucus

- contains epithelium with goblet cells

Serous Membranes

- simple squamous epithelium called mesothelioma, basement membrane, thin layer of loose C.T.

- lines cavities not open to exterior]

- Pericardial, pleural, peritoneal

Synovial Membrane

- line freely moveable joints

- Produce fluid rich in hyaluronic acid

edema

Swelling

What is EGF?

Epidermal Growth Factor Protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by bind to its receptor

differentiation: cell knows what to become

Functions of bone

support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell formation, Energy source

Types of bone

Long bone, short bone, irregular bone, flat bone and sesamoid bone

compact bone: strong, dense, mineralized

Spongy bone: not very dense, but strong, and has trabeculae

What is the nexus between skeletal muscle and blood pressure

Every time skeletal muscle is flexed it causes a jolt of pressure

Fontanelle? Significance?

Fontanelles are soft spots in a newborns cranium

- 2-6 depending on age and how they are counted

- allow for contortion

Bone remodeling and hormones

Typically 7-10% of our bones are remodeled every year

Osteoblasts will secrete collagen then hydroxyapatite

Calcitonin

- decrease blood Ca

- inhibit osteoclasts and renal/GI re/absorption

PTH

- Increase blood Ca

- stimulate osteoclasts & renal/GI re/absorption

Calcitriol

- increase blood Ca

- stimulate osteoclasts & renal/GI re/absorption

Estrogen

- inhibits apoptosis of osteocytes -> bone cells numbers go up -> stronger bones

- Post-menopausal (female)

Osteoporosis

Condition of holes in the body

- Diagnosis: bone scan -> help tell you level of bone density

- Treatment (4 methods)

1. Increase Ca

2. E.R.T

3. Low impact, low weight exercise

4. "Pulsatile PTH" (negative feedback)

- trick brain into thinking PTH levels are high -> PTH levels go down

-> osteoclasts activity goes down

Apical vs Basolateral Surface of cells

Apical surface is typically the surface closest to the lumen of a vessel

Basolateral surface are basal surfaces and lateral surfaces

TMJ

temporomandibular joint = Jaw = a hinge and ball and socket joint ALL at the same time

- jaw moves out of socket during normal function

Gomphosis

Tooth joint

Effect of aging on tissue

Cells divide more slowly (ironically more cancers are in elderly)

Collage fibers become more irregular in structure

Tendons and ligaments become less flexible and more fragile

interstitium

Space between cells

Ischemia

Low blood flow

Hypoglycemia

low blood sugar

"Angio" means?

vessel

CO2 vs pH, relationship between the two

CO2 and pH are inverse

visceral vs parietal

Parietal layer lines wall of body cavity

Visceral layer covers organs

Collagen

Collagen fibers are the must abundant connective tissue in the body

MAIN structural protein in the ECM found in the bodies various connective tissues

ALL 3 are AVASCULAR (therefore takes a long time to repair)