KIN 372 Quiz 4

what is the speed-accuracy trade off (Fitts' Law)?

(anything with Fitts' Law is important to know for the quiz)

the faster you move, the less accurate you'll be

the slower you move, the more accurate you'll be

What is the formula for Fitts' Law?

MT = a + b*log2(2D/W)

MT= movement time

D= distance

W= width (or target size)

What is the formula for index of difficulty? (!!)

MT = 2D/W

What is the relationship between index of difficulty and movement time? (!!)

they have a linear relationship with one another

the larger the ID, the longer the MT

the smaller the ID, the shorter the MT

Fitts' Law is the relationship between _______ and _________.

movement time, index of difficulty

How does target width and distance between targets influence movement time and index of difficulty?

- size of target (W) increases --> ID decreases

- movement time to target increases --> ID increases

- distance between two targets increases --> ID increases

What are the three phases of reciprocal movement? (!!)

1- preparatory phase: makes decision to move, vision involved in assessment

2- initial flight (1st sub movement): ballistic, open loop control, vision is minimal

3- termination (2nd sub movement): error correction, closed loop control, vision is highly involved

What is the role of vision in each of the phases of reciprocal movement? (!!)

vision is involved in the preparatory phase and termination phase, but not the initial flight phase

Which phase of reciprocal movement involves open loop control and ballistic movement? (!!)

initial flight

Which phase of reciprocal movement involves closed loop control / error correction? (!!)

termination phase

Describe the movement and coordination involved in reach to grasp.

- transport / reach

- grasp

- object manipulation (!!)

What is the role of vision in reach to grasp?

it is involved throughout

Does Fitts' Law apply to reach to grasp? (!!)

yes!

How does motor equivalence apply to handwriting?

when you write with your dominant vs. non-dominant hand, that's an example of motor equivalence

What is the role of vision in handwriting?

vision controls spatial arrangement on a horizontal line and accuracy

What is symmetric vs. asymmetric coordination? (!!)

either your hands are doing the same motion or different motions

symmetric: both hands are rubbing

asymmetric: one hand is patting and one hand is rubbing

What is the role of Central Pattern Generators in locomotion?

CPG's generate the rhythm and shape the pattern of motor neuron activity that controls locomotion (like walking)

What is the relationship between the arms and legs during locomotion?

- 1:1 ratio for normal walking (one arm swing per step)

- 2:1 ratio for slow walking (two arm swings per step)

Is head stability important for walking / locomotion?

yes -- head stability is maintained, which ultimately protects the brain

What is the role of vision in locomotion?

- vision is involved for contacting and avoiding objects

- it makes sure that you don't trip/fall

What are the 3 phases of catching and striking?

- move arm and hand forward

- shape hand

- grasp object

What is tau and its role in catching?

vision: tau -- rate of change across the retina relays information about time to contact

T/F: striking is similar to catching (!!)

true

What is attention?

- consciousness / awareness

- information processing is effortful

- influences ability to do more than one thing at a time

What determines the type of information processing you do?

the amount of attention (effort) you have

What is controlled processing? Give an example (!!)

- attention is effortful (!!)

- flexible, intentional

- consciously aware (!!)

- constrained by amount of additional resources (!!)

- example: listening to lecture and taking notes

What is automatic processing? Give an example (!!)

- occurs without attention

- does NOT draw upon general processing resources

- skilled performances (!!)

- later stages of learning (!!)

- examples: writing, typing (you don't really have to think about it if you're skilled in it)

What is multitasking? What 4 things is it influenced by? (!!)

- multitasking is doing more than one thing at a time

- basic premise: one thing is less attention demanding (more automatic) than another, so that we can do both things at the same time

influenced by: (!!)

- degree of automaticity

- similarity between the tasks

- complexity of tasks

- one's level of arousal

How can limited attention capacity contribute to a car accident? Talk about all 4 influences of multitasking (!!)

- degree of automaticity (same or different car)

- similarity between the tasks (texting and driving are similar, so they'll compete for your attention)

- complexity of tasks (simple or complex -- driving is complex, even though it's automatic)

- one's level of arousal (like if you're tired)

Explain the Filter (Bottleneck) Theory:

- difficulty doing more than one thing at a time because the human info-processing system performs each of its functions in serial order (ex. start car --> press on gas --> drive)

- somewhere along the line, there is a bottleneck where some info is not processed

What is the problem with the Filter (Bottleneck) Theory?

serial processing does not really exist in the brain -- rather, processing occurs simultaneously

What 2 things does cognitive effort depend on in the Central Resource Theory? (!!)

- central resource (pool) in the CNS

cognitive effort depends on:

- 1- available capacity: flexible (a lot of attention or a little bit of attention), affected by task demands, individual, situation

- 2- arousal

Explain the inverted U principle. What affects this principle?

There is a zone of optimal functioning of motor performance that is in the "middle ground" of arousal.

When arousal is very high or very low:

- less attention capacity is available

- perceptual narrowing occurs, cue utilization changes

What three things are arousal level affected by?

1- fine vs. gross movement (fine motor = more arousal)

2- complexity of task (more complex = more arousal)

3- number of decisions (more decisions = more arousal)

What are the four general rules for allocation?

1- ensure completion

2- enduring dispositions (two choices -- you'll always go with the one you like more)

3- novel (new to do)

4- momentary intentions

What does cognitive effort depend upon in the Multiple Resource Theory? (three items) (!!)

there are multiple resources or pools in the CNS, which is consistent with neurological evidence

1- input / output modalities

- hand, speech, vision

2- stages of info processing

- perception

- memory encoding

- response outcome

3- codes of processing info

- verbal codes, spatial codes, etc.

Why can we sing and drive but not text and drive according to the Multiple Resources Theory?

for singing and driving: inputs and outputs are different

- singing: hearing, speech, verbal code

- driving: vision, hands, spatial code

perception, memory, response are different:

- driving: high perception, short term memory

- singing: low perception, long-term memory

using two different pools (!!!)

for texting and driving:

- both vision and hands for input / output

- both high perception and short term memory

- perception, memory, and response are the same

- both use spatial codes

- uses the same pool (!!)

What is attentional focus?

directing attention to specific characteristics in a performance environment or to an action-preparation activity

How does width and direction contribute to focus? Give an example of narrow, broad, external, and internal focus (!!)

examples are catching a ball, walking through a crowd

catching a ball is:

- narrow width

- external direction

walking through a crowd is:

- broad width

- external direction

What is attention switching? (!!)

changing between attentional focus

- cannot make an eye movement without changing attention

Explain the action effect hypothesis (!!)

- movement vs. movement effects

- you'll focus on the outcome of the movement

Discuss what the visual focus would be for the following: (!!)

- returning a tennis serve

- driving a car

- walking through a cluttered environment

- shooting a free throw

- lifting weights

- returning a tennis serve: narrow, external

- driving a car: broad, external

- walking through a cluttered environment: broad, external

- shooting a free throw: narrow, external

- lifting weights: narrow, internal

What is the purpose of dual tasks? (!!)

the purpose is to determine the attention demands and characteristics of simultaneous performance of two different tasks

you can use different tasks to determine where impairments may lie

Does attention play a role in dual task?

yes!!

Which task (primary or secondary) is generally the task of interest?

primary is usually the task of interest, and it is effected by the secondary task

How does one determine which task is evaluated? (!!)

- where the participant is directed to pay attention determines which task is evaluated

- directed to primary task -- the secondary task will suffer from lack of attention so the performance should be evaluated (the secondary task will cause attention problems)

- if no instruction is given, must evaluate both tasks

What is the traditional view of the relationship between gait and cognition? (!!)

instability --> slow gait velocity --> fall and fractures

cognitive impairment --> MCI --> dementia

What is the alternate, emerging view of the relationship between gait and cognition? (!!)

cognitive impairment and instability affect each other

falls / fractures and dementia affect each other

instability --> slow gait velocity --> falls and fractures

cognitive impairment --> MCI --> dementia

cognitive impairment affects falls / fractures

instability affects dementia

How is increased gait variability related to falls?

- less variability is more automatic, so more variability is less automatic

- adjust step width for stability (wider step makes you more stable)

How is gait speed related to cognitive decline?

slower gait speed is associated with slower processing speed

What is the duration of short term memory? (!!)

less than one minute, usually measured in seconds

What is the capacity of short term memory? (!!)

7 items (like recalling a 7 digit number)

Explain the brain areas involved in short-term/working memory and their function.

visuo-spatial scratch pad: occipital lobe, parietal lobe

central executive: frontal lobe

phonological loop for auditory control: Broca's area, premotor cortex

different parts of the brain mediate memory (!!)

What two things are short term memory affected by? (!!)

duration, capacity

Does short term memory come before long term memory?

yes! (!!)

Give some examples of how working memory applies to movement performance

- remembering specific instructions a coach just gave you as you practice a task

- perform a sequence of movements you just saw

What is the duration and capacity of long-term memory? (!!)

- life-time duration

- unlimited capacity

What is the difference between explicit/declarative and implicit/procedural memory? (!!)

-explicit/declarative: conscious, facts, events, learn fast, flexible, forget easily, school learning, verbal describe

-implicit/procedural: unconscious, skills, tasks, ability to perform task (!!), longer to learn, specific, retained over time, not early in learning (!!), motor learning, perceptual learning

What are the two types of explicit/declarative memory and their definitions? (!!)

-episodic: events, experiences

-semantic: facts, concepts

What areas of the brain are involved with explicit/declarative memory? (!!)

- hippocampus

- medial temporal lobe

What areas of the brain are involved with implicit/procedural memory?

- cerebellum

- basal ganglia

- basically, the motor areas of the brain

Give an example of episodic memory (!!)

remembering the first time you drove a car

Give an example of semantic memory (!!)

remembering/knowing multiplication tables

Give an example of procedural memory (!!)

remembering/knowing how to ride a bike

What stages of memory can forgetting occur at?

all stages

What is trace decay and how does this affect memory? (!!)

happens after a passage of a long time

What is interference theory and how does this affect memory? (!!)

proactive interference: happens right before the task

retroactive interference: happens after the task

depends on degree of similarity and amount of inferences made

Forgetting is task dependent -- how can you modify the task to promote memory? (!!)

reduce verbal content given at a time, have a long rehearsal period, discrete learning, organized well

What is the difference between riding a bike and cramming for an exam? Which is better? (!!)

riding a bike: deeper memory processing

- discrete learning: good (you're taking breaks)

- long rehearsal period: good

cramming for an exam: easily forgotten

- continuous learning: bad (you're not taking breaks)

- short rehearsal period: bad

therefore, riding a bike is better than cramming for an exam!

What are the four characteristics that help remember a movement? (!!)

- movement position

- endpoint within body space

- looking at the limb

- meaningful movement

Explain the seven strategies for enhancing memory:

making the movement meaningful

- visual imagery (!!)

- verbal label

- involve emotion

intention to remember

- intentional vs incidental

subjective organization

- organizing into units (!!)

- serial position (first and last), but demonstrate the whole sequence first

encourage rehearsal

use multiple modalities (!!)

active learning (!!)

- active limb movement

encoding specificity principle (!!)

- practice in the same context as performance

Review: what is reaction time between?

from onset of stimulus to onset of movement

How does reaction time change in children? (!!)

- longer in children

- 6 year old is 3x slower than 17 year old

- great improvement from 6-15 years old

How does the reaction time change in older adults? (!!)

- peak at 20 years old, gradual decline until 60 years old

- steeper decline from 60-90 years old

How does Fitts' Law change in children?

- spend less time and cover less distance in 1st submovement

- with practice, increase time in 1st sub movement, increase smoothness

How does Fitts' Law change in older adults?

- favors accuracy over speed

- spend less time and cover less distance in 1st sub movement (spend more time during error correction)

- with practice, movement time decreases but sub movement ratios don't change

How is attention different in children?

- decreased attentional capacity

- maturation of CNS increases capacity

How is controlled and automated processing different in children?

- children operate more in the controlled processing mode (!!)

- with a lot of practice, they can eventually move to automated processing

How is selective attention different in children?

- driving mainly by enduring dispositions (what they like and enjoy is what they'll attend to)

- infants prefer faces, sharp contrasts, colors

- 2-5 year olds are too focused

- 6-11 year olds are too broad

- early adolescence have adult-like patterns (relevant info)

How does the ability to dual task change with development?

in babies:

- neonates suck with eyes closed, stop if open

- at 9 weeks, suck in bursts, look up during pauses

- at 3-4 months old, suck and look simultaneously

in children:

- coupling (two hands doing the same things) develops first

- decoupling (different things with hands, like buttoning) develops later

How does bimanual control change with development? What area of the brain plays the largest role in the development of bimanual control? (!!)

corpus callosum: connects both sides of the brain, develops from the back to the front like the rest of the brain

How is memory different in children? Why is memory different?

short term memory:

- 2-3 years old: recall 2 items

- 7 years old: recall 5 plus or minus 2 items

- by age 2 you can recall, but little details

- generally: around 1 item per year alive until the limit of 7 is reached

rehearsal strategies:

- until 10: absent or ineffective

- even then: less efficient and flexible

- you have to tell them exactly how to practice

consolidation to long term memory:

- active involvement is important

- repetition

- teach them to rehearse

Why: slower info processors (capacity less, search slower, poor encoding) and smaller knowledge base

What strategies could you use to enhance motor learning in children given the differences in attention and memory? (!!)

- keep activities short due to reduced attentional capacity

- use simple, concrete cues to focus them to what is relevant to completing the skill

- use feedback to provide motivation, error information, and perspective comments

- provide multiple trials of problem solving activities to promote consolidation to long term memory

How is attention different in older adults?

decreased attentional capacity

- decreased number of brain cells -- less capacity

- less automated -- loss of use

How is selective attention different in older adults? (controlled processing)

- visual spatial attention maintained

- difficulty dividing attention between multiple items

- difficulty inhibiting distractors

- difficulty switching between situations

- difficulty with executive processing (frontal lobe)

How is short term memory different in older adults?

- reduces about 1 item after age 50

- more complex info, greater difference

How is long term memory different in older adults?

- it maintains intact, especially episodic memory of youth

How is procedural learning different in older adults?

- more dependent on feedback

How is consolidation different in older adults?

- encoding difficulties

- this is the biggest aspect of memory with difficulties for older adults

How is retrieval different in older adults?

- they have more difficulties

- large meta-knowledge helps with compensation

What strategies could you use to enhance motor learning in older adults given the changes in attention and memory? (!!)

- talk slowly while giving instructions to allow enough time for information processing

- repeat instructions and allow more time for consolidation

- focus on one task at a time

- provide frequent augmented feedback

- limit distraction

What is neuroplasticity?

the process by which the brain makes new connections and prunes old connections to learn

What are the three types of neuroplasticiy?

1- synaptic plasticity: strengthens and inhibits synapses, takes time and rest is important (!!)

2- neuronal network plasticity: growth and pruning of dendrites/connections between neurons, use it or lose it (!!)

3- cortical remapping: neighboring areas that are not being used will be used by other cortical areas

Is neuroplasticiy the same across all ages? Does it occur through the lifespan? (!!)

Neuroplasticity changes over time and happens throughout life

Neuroplasticity takes _____ and _____ is important! (!!)

time, rest

Use it or ________ (!!)

lose it