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Brahe (Tycho Brahe)
Made detailed naked-eye observations of planetary motion without telescopes.
Commercial Revolution
Characterized by the growth of capitalism, banking systems, and joint-stock companies.
heliocentric model
The theory that the Sun is at the center of the universe, proposed by Copernicus.
Empiricism
The theory emphasizing observation, experimentation, and sensory experience as the basis for knowledge.
Enlightenment
An intellectual movement promoting reason, science, and progress during the 18th century.
Galileo (Galileo Galilei)
Improved the telescope and discovered moons of Jupiter, challenging celestial perfection.
Kepler (Johannes Kepler)
Formulated the laws of planetary motion, proving planets move in elliptical orbits.
Newton (Isaac Newton)
Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation in Principia Mathematica (1687).
Mercantilism
Economic theory emphasizing state control of trade to maximize national wealth.
French Revolution
Began in 1789 with the Estates-General, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise of radical phases.
Protestant
Christians who broke from the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation.
Martin Luther
German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses (1517).
Vernacular
The everyday language spoken by ordinary people, as opposed to Latin.
Council of Trent
A key event in the Counter-Reformation (1545–1563), reaffirming Catholic doctrine.
Social Darwinism
Applied Darwin’s theory of natural selection to justify imperialism and social hierarchies.
Overseas Trade 1500-1800
Fueled by colonization and maritime empires, involving companies like the Dutch East India Company.
Bourgeoisie
The middle class in France, consisting of merchants, professionals, and urban elites.
National Assembly
Formed in 1789 by the Third Estate to represent the French people and passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Women in the Enlightenment
Contributed to intellectual life through salons and writings, advocating for gender equality.
The Act of Supremacy
Passed in 1534, declaring the English monarch as the head of the Church of England.
The Inquisition
A Catholic Church institution aimed at suppressing heresy and enforcing orthodoxy.
Deism
Belief in a rational God who created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs.
Louis XIV (The Sun King)
Absolute monarch of France who centralized power and built the Palace of Versailles.
