AP EUROPEAN HISTORY CRAM

Brahe (Tycho Brahe)

• Made detailed naked-eye observations of planetary motion without telescopes.

• His data disproved Aristotle's geocentric model but did not fully embrace heliocentrism.

• Worked with Johannes Kepler, whose laws of planetary motion were based on Brahe’s observations.

Commercial Revolution

• Characterized by the growth of capitalism, banking systems, and joint-stock companies.

• Resulted in increased trade networks, colonization, and wealth accumulation from the Americas.

• Enabled the rise of mercantilism, emphasizing state-sponsored trade to boost national wealth.

Copernicus (Nicolaus Copernicus)

• Proposed the heliocentric model in On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543).

• Challenged the Church-endorsed Ptolemaic geocentric model of the universe.

• His work influenced Galileo, Kepler, and later scientists during the Scientific Revolution.

Empiricism

• Emphasized observation, experimentation, and sensory experience as the basis for knowledge.

• Key figures include Francis Bacon, who developed the scientific method.

• Contrasted with reliance on traditional authority or pure logic, advancing the Scientific Revolution.

Enlightenment

• Intellectual movement promoting reason, science, and progress during the 18th century.

• Thinkers like Voltaire, Locke, and Rousseau influenced politics, education, and secularism.

• Criticized traditional authority, including the Catholic Church and absolute monarchs.

Galileo (Galileo Galilei)

• Improved the telescope, discovering moons of Jupiter and sunspots, challenging celestial perfection.

• Supported Copernicus' heliocentric theory; faced Inquisition trial and house arrest for heresy.

• Wrote Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, advancing the Scientific Revolution.

Index of Prohibited Books

• Created by the Catholic Church during the Counter-Reformation to ban "heretical" works.

• Included texts by Copernicus, Galileo, Voltaire, and Enlightenment thinkers.

• Aimed to combat Protestantism and scientific ideas that threatened Church doctrine.

Kepler (Johannes Kepler)

• Formulated the laws of planetary motion, proving planets move in elliptical orbits.

• Used Tycho Brahe’s data to support heliocentrism mathematically.

• Wrote Astronomia Nova (1609), laying the groundwork for Newton's theories of motion.

Mercantilism

• Economic theory emphasizing state control of trade to maximize national wealth.

• Encouraged colonization, tariffs, and monopolistic trading companies like the Dutch East India Company.

• Opposed by Adam Smith’s later ideas of free-market capitalism.

Newton (Isaac Newton)

• Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation in Principia Mathematica (1687).

• Developed calculus and showed that natural laws govern the universe.

• His work united physics and astronomy, capping the Scientific Revolution.

Romanticism

• Cultural movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and individualism (late 18th–early 19th centuries).

• Reacted against the rationalism of the Enlightenment and Industrialization.

• Key figures include Wordsworth (poetry) and Delacroix (art).

The Inquisition

• A Catholic Church institution aimed at suppressing heresy and enforcing orthodoxy.

• Targeted scientists like Galileo and religious dissenters during the Counter-Reformation.

• Most active in Spain (Spanish Inquisition), targeting Jews, Muslims, and Protestants.

Locke (John Locke)

• Advocated for natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the social contract.

• Argued that government power derives from the consent of the governed (Two Treatises of Government).

• Influenced both the American and French Revolutions with his Enlightenment ideas.

Rousseau (Jean-Jacques Rousseau)

• Wrote The Social Contract (1762), promoting the "general will" as the basis of government legitimacy.

• Advocated for individual freedom while supporting collective sovereignty.

• Criticized inequality and influenced the radical phase of the French Revolution.

Peter the Great

• Russian tsar who westernized and modernized Russia (e.g., military, education, and dress reforms).

• Founded St. Petersburg as a "window to the West."

• Expanded Russian territory through wars with Sweden (Great Northern War).

Voltaire

• Criticized organized religion and promoted freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state.

• Wrote Candide as a satirical attack on optimism and authority.

• His ideas influenced Enlightenment-era reformers and revolutions.

Deism

• Belief in a rational God who created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs.

• Associated with Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Thomas Jefferson.

• Rejected organized religion but upheld natural laws and morality.

French Revolution

• Began in 1789 with the Estates-General, leading to the formation of the National Assembly.

• Overthrew the monarchy (Louis XVI) and led to radical phases like the Reign of Terror.

• Inspired by Enlightenment ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Social Darwinism

• Applied Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human societies to justify imperialism and social hierarchies.

• Used to defend the dominance of wealthy industrial nations over "weaker" countries.

• Influenced European attitudes during the New Imperialism period of the 19th century.

Roman Catholic Church

• The dominant religious institution in Europe until challenged by the Reformation.

• Supported doctrines like indulgences, sparking criticism from reformers such as Luther.

• Reaffirmed its authority during the Counter-Reformation with measures like the Council of Trent.

Saint Domingue

• A French colony in the Caribbean (now Haiti) known for sugar plantations and a brutal slave economy.

• Site of the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), the first successful slave revolt leading to independence.

• The colony's wealth fueled France’s economy but exposed the contradictions of Enlightenment ideals.

Napoleon (Napoleon Bonaparte)

• Rose to power during the French Revolution, declaring himself Emperor of France (1804).

• Reformed France with the Napoleonic Code, promoting meritocracy and legal equality.

• Expanded France’s empire but was defeated at Waterloo (1815), leading to the Congress of Vienna.

Secularism

• Emphasizes the separation of religion from government and public affairs.

• Grew during the Enlightenment as thinkers challenged religious authority in favor of reason.

• Prominent in the French Revolution, which sought to reduce the Catholic Church's power.

Naturalism

• A literary and artistic movement focusing on realistic depictions of life and nature.

• Rejected idealism in favor of scientific observation of society and the natural world.

• Developed during the late 19th century, influenced by scientific progress and industrialization.

Humanism

• A Renaissance intellectual movement emphasizing human potential and achievements.

• Inspired by the study of classical Greek and Roman texts.

• Promoted secular subjects like history, literature, and art, contrasting with medieval scholasticism.

Italian Renaissance

• A cultural revival in Italy (14th–17th centuries) emphasizing art, science, and humanism.

• Key figures include Leonardo da Vinci (art/science) and Michelangelo (art).

• Sparked a renewed focus on individualism and classical antiquity.

Protestant

• Christians who broke from the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation.

• Prominent groups include Lutherans, Calvinists, and Anglicans.

• Challenged Church doctrines like indulgences and emphasized faith over works.

Martin Luther

• German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses (1517).

• Criticized indulgences and argued for salvation by faith alone (sola fide).

• His ideas spread rapidly with the printing press and led to religious wars in Europe.

Vernacular

• Refers to the everyday language spoken by ordinary people, as opposed to Latin.

• Writers like Dante (Italian), Chaucer (English), and Luther (German Bible) promoted its use.

• Encouraged wider literacy and the spread of Reformation and Renaissance ideas.

Ninety-Five Theses

• Martin Luther’s list of grievances against the Catholic Church, nailed to a church door in 1517.

• Criticized Church practices like the sale of indulgences.

• Sparked the Protestant Reformation and religious conflicts across Europe.

The Act of Supremacy

• Passed in 1534 under Henry VIII, declaring the English monarch as the head of the Church of England.

• Resulted from Henry’s split with the Catholic Church over his divorce.

• Marked the beginning of England’s religious reformation and the rise of the Anglican Church.

Anglican Church

• The Church of England, established by Henry VIII after breaking with the Catholic Church.

• Combined elements of Protestantism and Catholic rituals.

• Expanded under Elizabeth I, consolidating England as a Protestant nation.

Council of Trent

• A key event in the Counter-Reformation (1545–1563), reaffirming Catholic doctrine.

• Addressed abuses like indulgences and emphasized the authority of the Pope.

• Rejected Protestant ideas and clarified Catholic theology, strengthening the Church.

The Edict of Nantes

• Issued in 1598 by Henry IV of France, granting religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants).

• Ended the French Wars of Religion, balancing Catholic and Protestant interests.

• Revoked by Louis XIV in 1685, leading to the persecution and exile of Huguenots.

Aristocracy

• A privileged class of nobles who held hereditary titles and controlled land and political power.

• Enjoyed feudal privileges like tax exemptions, especially in pre-revolutionary France.

• Declined after revolutions like the French Revolution, which sought to abolish noble privileges.

English Civil War

• A 17th-century conflict (1642–1651) between Royalists (Cavaliers) supporting King Charles I and Parliamentarians (Roundheads).

• Resulted in the execution of Charles I and the temporary establishment of a republic under Cromwell.

• Led to the rise of constitutional monarchy after the Glorious Revolution.

Habsburg Empire

• A powerful European dynasty ruling Austria, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire.

• Played a key role in conflicts like the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).

• Faced challenges from emerging powers like France and Prussia.

Glorious Revolution

• The 1688 overthrow of Catholic King James II in England, replaced by William III and Mary II.

• Resulted in a constitutional monarchy and the English Bill of Rights.

• Ensured Protestant dominance and weakened absolute monarchy in England.

King James (James II)

• Catholic monarch deposed during the Glorious Revolution (1688).

• His policies favoring Catholicism alarmed Protestant nobles and Parliament.

• Fled to France, where he received support from Louis XIV.

Pope Innocent XII

• A 17th-century pope who reformed the Catholic Church by opposing nepotism.

• Focused on improving Church discipline during the late Counter-Reformation.

• His papacy reflected the Church’s response to Protestant challenges.

Absolute Monarchs

• Rulers who claimed divine right and centralized control, like Louis XIV of France.

• Expanded royal authority by reducing the power of nobles and parliaments.

• Common in the 17th and 18th centuries until challenged by the Enlightenment.

Enlightened Absolutist

• Absolute monarchs who adopted Enlightenment reforms while maintaining power, like Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great.

• Implemented policies like religious tolerance, legal reforms, and promotion of education.

• Demonstrated the tension between absolutism and Enlightenment ideals.

Thirty Years’ War

• A European conflict (1618–1648) over religion, territory, and power, beginning in the Holy Roman Empire.

• Ended with the Peace of Westphalia, establishing principles of state sovereignty.

• Devastated Germany but increased power for France and Sweden.

King William III

• Protestant ruler who came to power after the Glorious Revolution with his wife Mary II.

• Accepted the English Bill of Rights (1689), ensuring parliamentary supremacy.

• Defeated James II’s supporters in battles like the Battle of the Boyne.

Saint Petersburg

• City founded by Peter the Great as Russia’s "window to the West."

• Became a symbol of Russian modernization and European influence.

• Served as the capital of Russia until the early 20th century.

Louis XIV (The Sun King)

• Absolute monarch of France who centralized power and built the Palace of Versailles.

• Ruled for over 70 years, promoting divine right monarchy and French cultural dominance.

• His wars and lavish spending drained France’s treasury, leading to future unrest.

Overseas Trade 1500-1800

• Fueled by colonization and maritime empires (Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, England, France).

• Involved trading companies like the Dutch East India Company and the British East India Company.

• The Triangular Trade connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas, creating vast global networks.

Immanuel Kant

• Enlightenment philosopher who argued for rational morality and universal ethical principles (Categorical Imperative).

• Wrote Critique of Pure Reason, exploring the limits of human understanding.

• Promoted the idea of autonomy and individual reasoning, influencing later philosophers.

Religion in the Enlightenment

• Emphasized natural religion (Deism) over revealed religion, promoting reason as the basis of belief.

• Thinkers like Voltaire criticized organized religion for superstition and corruption.

• Encouraged tolerance and separation of church and state, influencing secular governance.

Religion in the Scientific Revolution

• Scientific discoveries by figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton challenged biblical interpretations of the universe.

• The Catholic Church responded with measures like the Index of Prohibited Books and the Inquisition.

• Many scientists, such as Newton, remained deeply religious, viewing science as revealing God’s creation.

French Revolution

• Began in 1789 with the Estates-General and led to the creation of the National Assembly.

• Key events: Storming of the Bastille, the Reign of Terror, and the rise of Napoleon.

• Inspired by Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, challenging absolute monarchy.

Three Estates

• First Estate: Catholic clergy; owned land, collected tithes, and paid no taxes.

• Second Estate: Nobility; enjoyed feudal privileges and tax exemptions.

• Third Estate: Commoners (peasants, urban workers, and bourgeoisie), representing 98% of the population.

Estates General

• A representative assembly of the three estates, called in 1789 for the first time since 1614.

• Led to a deadlock over voting by estate versus voting by head.

• The Third Estate’s frustration resulted in the formation of the National Assembly.

Bourgeoisie

• The middle class in France, consisting of merchants, professionals, and urban elites.

• Played a key role in the French Revolution, demanding political power and an end to noble privileges.

• Embodied capitalist values and Enlightenment ideas of progress and individualism.

Capitalism

• An economic system based on private ownership, market competition, and profit motivation.

• Expanded during the Commercial Revolution and fueled by overseas trade and colonization.

• Contrasted with mercantilism, which emphasized state control of trade and national wealth.

Feudal Privileges of Nobility in France

• Included tax exemptions, collection of feudal dues from peasants, and exclusive hunting rights.

• Reinforced the Second Estate’s dominance over the Third Estate.

• A major grievance during the French Revolution, abolished in the August Decrees of 1789.

National Assembly

• Formed in 1789 by the Third Estate to represent the French people.

• Passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, asserting liberty and equality.

• Marked the end of absolute monarchy and the beginning of a constitutional monarchy.

Third Estate

• Comprised peasants, urban workers, and the bourgeoisie; made up 98% of France’s population.

• Heavily taxed while lacking political power, fueling revolutionary grievances.

• Its leaders, like Abbé Sieyès, pushed for reforms that led to the French Revolution.

Second Estate

• The nobility of France, who enjoyed feudal privileges and tax exemptions.

• Controlled significant land and political influence but were increasingly resented by the Third Estate.

• Lost their privileges during the French Revolution as feudalism was abolished.

First Estate

• The Catholic clergy, owning about 10% of French land while paying no taxes.

• Divided into higher clergy (bishops, often noble) and lower clergy (parish priests, often sympathetic to the Third Estate).

• Opposed revolutionary reforms that threatened their traditional privileges.

Bishops

• High-ranking Catholic clergy with significant wealth and political power.

• Many bishops were from noble families, aligning them with the Second Estate.

• Criticized for neglecting spiritual duties while enjoying feudal privileges.

Women in the Enlightenment

• Contributed to intellectual life through salons (e.g., Madame Geoffrin) and writings.

• Advocates like Mary Wollstonecraft argued for gender equality in education (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman).

• Faced limitations but challenged traditional gender roles through Enlightenment ideals.

Women in the French Revolution

• Led protests like the Women’s March on Versailles demanding bread and political action.

• Formed political clubs (e.g., Society of Revolutionary Republican Women) to advocate for rights.

• Despite their activism, they were ultimately denied equal citizenship and political power.