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Cell determination
The molecular decision where a cell becomes destined for a particular developmental pathway.
Cell commitment to developmental pathways
Cells become committed through the inheritance of cytoplasmic determinants or cell-to-cell interactions.
Totipotent stem cells
Cells capable of giving rise to any tissue in an organism.
Pluripotent stem cells
Cells capable of giving rise to all cell types in the body.
Multipotent stem cells
Stem cells that can give rise to a limited number of cell types.
Reproductive cloning
Cloning an individual using the nucleus of a cell from the animal to be cloned.
Therapeutic cloning
Replicating tissue to treat diseases.
Hox genes
Genes that play a crucial role in body development and can lead to morphological changes when mutated.
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death where cells shrink and die.
Virus structure
Consists of a genome of RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein coat.
Obligate cellular parasites
Viruses that only infect specific hosts and cell types.
Lytic cycle
Viral replication cycle where the virus kills the host cell.
Lysogenic cycle
Viral DNA integrates into the host chromosome and may enter the lytic cycle later.
Antigenic drift
Small changes in viral proteins leading to the need for new vaccines.
Antigenic shift
Reassortment of viral genomes leading to new strains and pandemics.
Latent viral infections
Periods of low viral load followed by intermittent replication.
Chronic viral infections
Persistent viral infections.
Prion replication
Misfolded proteins causing diseases like Mad Cow Disease.
Osmotic balance
Maintaining stable water levels inside and outside cells.
Osmoconformers
Organisms that match their internal environment.
Osmoregulators
Organisms that maintain a constant internal water level.
Loop of Henle
Helps in concentrating urine to retain water.
Filtration, reabsorption, secretion
Processes in kidney function.
Nephron
Primary component of the kidney.
ADH, aldosterone, ANP
Hormones regulating kidney function.
Innate immunity
Non-specific immune response.
Adaptive immunity
Specific immune response based on antigens.
MHC
Proteins displaying antigens for immune response.
Cytotoxic T cells
T cells that kill infected or tumor cells.
Helper T cells
Cells that activate B cells or macrophages.
B cells
Cells producing antibodies and memory cells.
Autoimmune diseases
Conditions where the immune system attacks the body.
Allergic reactions
Over-responses to non-threatening substances.
Antigenic specificity changes
Evolutionary changes in pathogens' antigens.
Hermaphroditism types
Sequential, protogyny, protandry.
Internal fertilization advantages
Provides safety for gametes.
Spermatogenesis
Process of sperm production.
Hormonal regulation of male reproductive function
FSH and LH stimulate spermatogenesis and testosterone production.
Oocyte production
Formation of female gametes.
Ovulation and the female reproductive cycle
LH triggers egg release.
Hormonal regulation of female reproductive function
HCG maintains pregnancy hormones.
Fertilization events
Egg activation and fusion of genetic material.
Cleavage
Division of zygote into smaller cells.
Blastula
Hollow ball of cells.
Gastrulation outcomes
Formation of germ layers.
Neurulation
Formation of the nervous system.
Somitogenesis
Formation of somites.
Birth process hormonal control
Prostaglandins and oxytocin stimulate uterine contractions.
Cell commitment
The process by which cells become dedicated to specific developmental pathways, leading to the expression of certain genes and the restriction of potential cell fates.
Stem cell types
Pluripotent stem cells (e.g., embryonic stem cells) can differentiate into any cell type, while multipotent stem cells (e.g., adult stem cells) have a more limited differentiation potential.
Progressive determination
The concept that as cells commit to specific developmental pathways, their fate becomes increasingly restricted, leading to the specialization of cell types in a progressive manner.
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