AP Psychology Unit 1- Scientific Foundations

social cultural perspective

The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes.

psychodynamic perspective

A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior to treat psychological disorders.

humanistic psychology

A school of psychology that focused on how humans can flourish and achieve their full potential.

behavioral perspective

The scientific study of observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning.

cognitive perspective

The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

evolutionary perspective

The study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.

biological perspective

A branch of psychology concerned with the links between physical processes and behavior.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have been able to foresee its occurrence.

overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one’s actual ability, performance, or accuracy of beliefs.

confirmation bias

The tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations while dismissing contradictory evidence.

experimenter bias

Systematic errors in research attributable to a researcher’s behavior, preconceived beliefs, or desires about results.

operational definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables so that a study can be exactly replicated.

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

quantitative research

A method of research that relies on measuring variables using a numerical system and statistical models.

falsifiability

The logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by observation or experiment.

qualitative research

A method of research that produces descriptive data, such as observations, interviews, or case studies.

replication

Conducting an experiment again using the same operational definitions to see if the same results are achieved.

variable

A condition, characteristic, or object that can take on different categories or values and be quantified.

experimental research

Research utilizing randomized assignment and systematic manipulation of variables to draw causal inferences.

nonexperimental research

Research where the investigator cannot randomly assign participants or manipulate the independent variable (also called quasi experimental).

generalizability

The extent to which findings obtained from a sample are applicable to a broader population or other situations.

peer review

The evaluation of scientific work by other qualified professionals in the same field before publication.

confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

experiment

A research method where an investigator manipulates factors to observe effects on behavior while controlling other variables.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; used as a comparison for the experimental group.

placebo

A pharmacologically inert substance (like a sugar pill) administered as a control in testing.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the "cause" being studied (plotted on the x axis).

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations (the "effect," plotted on the y axis).

double blind procedure

An experimental procedure where both participants and staff are ignorant about who received the treatment or placebo.

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment or version of the independent variable.

random assignment

Assigning participants to conditions by chance to minimize preexisting differences between groups.

single blind study

A procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental conditions under which they are operating.

placebo effect

A significant response to an inert substance deriving from the recipient’s expectations or beliefs.

representative sample

A sample obtained in an unbiased way that accurately reflects the total population.

population

All the cases in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.

random sample

A sample where each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion; increases external validity.

convenience sampling

Selecting study units based on ready availability rather than random or systematic processes.

sampling bias

A systematic error in the choice of participants that prevents results from being generalized to the larger population.

sample

A subset of a population of interest selected for study to make inferences about that population.

case study

An in depth investigation of a single individual, family, or event; results are often difficult to generalize.

naturalistic observation

Data collection in a field setting without laboratory controls or manipulation of variables.

correlational research

A study in which relationships between variables are observed without any manipulation by the researcher.

meta analysis

A quantitative technique for synthesizing the results of multiple studies into a single combined result.

social desirability bias

A response bias where individuals answer questions in a way they believe will be viewed favorably.

likert scale

A direct attitude measure consisting of statements reflecting positive or negative evaluations (usually on a 5 point scale).

third variable problem

The fact that an observed correlation between two variables may be due to a common correlation with a third, unmeasured factor.

negative correlation

A relationship where the value of one variable increases as the other decreases (inverse relationship).

self report bias

A problem arising when researchers rely on participants to describe their own thoughts or feelings rather than direct measurement.

positive correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both variables rise or fall together.

confidentiality

The ethical requirement to limit disclosure of a patient's or participant's identity and data.

professional ethics

Rules of acceptable conduct that members of a given profession are expected to follow.

informed consent

A participant's voluntary agreement to a procedure based on an understanding of its nature and risks.

institutional review boards (IRB)

Committees that review research proposals to ensure ethical acceptability and compliance.

informed assent

The process through which minors agree to participate in a study, though they cannot provide legal consent.

deception research

A study where participants are misled about the purpose to avoid responses based on perceived expectations.

debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to the participants.

confederate

An aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed.

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution.

mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

central tendency

The middle or center point of a set of scores (mean, median, or mode).

median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell shaped curve describing the distribution of many types of data.

bimodal distribution

A set of scores with two peaks or modes around which values tend to cluster.

skew

The degree to which a set of scores is asymmetrically distributed around a central point (positive or negative).

variation

The degree of variance or dispersion of values obtained for a specific variable.

percentile rank

The percentage of cases in a data set with scores equal to or below the score in question.

standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

regression to the mean

The tendency for extreme scores to become more moderate (closer to the average) upon retesting.

effect size

A measure of the magnitude or practical significance of a relationship between two variables.

correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables (ranging from −1 to +1).

statistical significance

A statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance (typically p < .05).