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universality / gender bias / andocentrism / alpha bias / beta bias / cultural bias / ethocentrism / cultural relativism
Gender (AO1)
U___________
G_________
______________
A_______ & B_______
C____________
_______________
__________ ___________
universality
Gender (AO1)
____________ is the idea that there are a range of psychological characteristics of human beings that can be applied to all of us despite differences of experiences, upbringing, gender or cultural background.
gender bias / andocentric
Gender (AO1)
______________ is a misrepresentation of the gender differences and similarities between males and females. Psychology is argued to be ____________, having a biased view of psychology, taking a masculine perspective with male behaviour as "normal". This is due to psychology being historically conducted by men and on male samples.
Hare-Mustin + Marecek / alpha bias / beta bias
Gender (AO1)
Identified by ___________________ (1988), ____________ is the exaggeration of gender differences and _____________ is the minimisation of gender differences.
exaggeration
What word can be used to describe gender differences in alpha bias?
minimisation
What word can be used to describe gender differences in beta bias?
cultural bias / ethnocentrism / cultural relativism
Culture (AO1)
_____________ is researchers judging other cultures from the researchers cultural perspective/values, this is due to ________________ when the researcher takes their own cultural behaviour as ‘normal’. ___________________ suggests behaviours can only be understood from the perspective of its cultural context
Berry / etic / emic
Culture (AO1)
Identified by _______ (1969), both types could cause cultural bias.
_______ research is when research based on one culture is generalised and applied to all cultures.
_______ research is based on studying a specific culture
etic
Which type of research identified by Berry (1969) involves universality?
Gender - Feminism (AO1)
Re-examining the ‘facts’ about gender
View of women as normal humans, not deficient men
Scepticism towards biological determinism
Research agenda focusing on women's concerns
A psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women
Gender - Biased Research Methods (AO3)
Institutional sexism
Men predominate at senior researcher level
Use of standardised procedures in research studies
Could create artificial differences or mask real ones
Ignoring that women/men might respond or be treated differently
Dissemination of research results
Publishing bias towards positive results - Research that finds gender differences are more likely to get published than that which doesn’t
Gender - Reversed Alpha Bias: Cornwell et al (2013) (AO3)
- Girls outperform boys on reading tests, while boys score at least as well on math and science tests as girls.
- Boys who perform equally as well as girls on reading, math, and science tests are graded less favorably by their teachers, but this less favorable treatment essentially vanishes when non-cognitive skills (motivation, perseverance etc.) are taken into account.
Henrich / female / Buss / indigenous / opportunity samples
Gender & Culture in Psycholology (AO3)
____________ (2010)
Psychology is changing, with the increased prominence of ___________ psychology researchers such as Loftus and Ainsworth and the majority of studies now conducted controlling for gender. However a significant amount of influential historical studies such as Asch, Milgram and Zimbardo only contained male participants.
Some researchers are attempting to represent cultural differences in behaviour such as ________ including 37 cultures in his study on mate preferences. There is also an increase in _____________ psychology, with researchers from varying cultures investigating their own cultures.
The majority of research is likely to continue over-representing American college students in research due to the ease of obtaining _______________ in American universities.
Henrich / WEIRD / 68 / 96
Gender and culture in psychology (AO3)
___________ (2010) psychological findings are argued to be universal but are conducted on ________ participants. ______% of research subjects in a sample of hundreds of studies in leading psychology journals came from the United States, and _____% from Western industrialized nations.
Cochrane + Sashidharan / schizophrenia / 7 / Littlewood + Lipsedge
Gender and culture in psychology (AO3)
_______________ suggested that there may be misconceptions about _______________ in Afro-Caribbean people among doctors (__x more likely to be diagnosed, with a same genetic predisposition).
_____________________ suggested that doctors were interpreting the symptoms in Afro-Caribbean people as being more severe.
interpretation / replicability
What are the difficulties of cross-cultural research?
Western / educated / industrialised / rich / democratic
What is a WEIRD participant?
opportunity sampling
Why is the majority of research likely to continue over-representing American college students?
biological / environmental / psychic / hard determinists / soft determinists / scientific emphasis
Free will & determinism (AO1)
Determinism is the idea behaviours are the result of internal and/or external forces that we have no control over.
Deterministic forces can be ____________ (such as genes, brain structure and neurochemistry) ____________ (such as conditioning, social learning and cultural) or ____________ (unconscious Freudian concepts such as the id and defence mechanisms)
_______________ suggest all events and behaviour can be completely described and predicted with no role for personal decision making. ________________ suggest there is still some role for conscious decision making as an expression of free will but behaviour is largely shaped by deterministic factors
Free will is the idea that our decisions and behaviours are a result of personal conscious decision making unconstrained by deterministic causal factors.
The ________________ on causal explanations depends on determinism. Using controlled conditions to demonstrate a causal relationship between the manipulation of independent variables and changes in the dependant variable
biological / environmental / psychic
What are the deterministic forces?
hard determinists
Who believes there is no role of free will?
face value / illusion / justice system / scientific / humanistic / concordance / EEG / Libert / fMRI / Haynes
Free will and determinism (AO3)
Free will has ______________, personal experience suggests we make our decisions and act after conscious thought. However, determinists argue this is an _________ and decisions are made before we are consciously aware of them.
Deterministic arguments for behaviour such as aggression has important implications for the ___________ __________, undermining the principle that the individual is fully accountable for their actions.
Psychologically deterministic theories also have implications for our understanding of correct child-rearing, provision of education, and blame for addiction.
____________ approaches to psychology are deterministic - behaviourist, biological, cognitive (soft); it is only a _____________ approach which supports free will, this approach also rejects the scientific process - suggesting free will is incompatible with science.
High ________________ rates in twins for disorders like schizophrenia indicate a less-than-100% causality, so potentially soft determinism, or multiple deterministic factors that have not been fully identified.
Neurological _______ research by __________ (1983) demonstrates brain regions decide to act before consciousness is aware of making the decision suggesting no free will. This has been backed up with _______ research by ___________ (2008).
readiness potential / 0.2 seconds
Free will and Determinism - Libert (AO3)
Aim: Investigate timing of conscious awareness in voluntary actions.
Method: Participants flexed wrist at will, noting intention and action times. EEG measured brain activity.
Findings: ___________________ (brain activity) preceded conscious awareness of intention by ________________.
Suggestions: brain prepares for actions before conscious awareness, challenging traditional notion of free will.
gradual buildup of neural activity in the motor cortex preceding voluntary movements
What is the readiness potential (investigated by Libert in EEG free will study)?
post hoc ergo propt / assumption of causation by sequential events
What is a counter-argument of Libert’s EEG free will study that challenges the interpretation that the timing of conscious awareness indicates the true initiator of voluntary action? What is this?
hereditary / environmental / nativists / empiricists / tabula rasa / dichotomous / interactionist / diathesis stress models / epigenetics
The Nature-Nurture Debate (AO1)
The nature-nurture debate is what extent behaviour is determined by the influence of ____________ nature factors (genes) or ______________ nurture factors (experiences) and the relative importance / combination of both.
Nature: Philosophical ________ such as Descartes assume biological heredity (genes) is more important in determining behaviour, that much of knowledge is present from birth (innate)
Nurture: Philosophical ________ such as Locke assume learning/environment is more important in determining behaviour, as knowledge comes from interaction with the world. The mind starts as a blank slate or '___________'.
Most psychologists don't take a _____________ view (one or the other), but take an _____________ approach -suggesting behaviours are due to the combination and interaction of nature and nurture influences.
Interactionist processes include __________ __________ __________, that due to a genetic (nature) factor we are at risk/ predisposed to a disorder like schizophrenia, but environmental triggers must be present in order for it to develop. _____________ are genes that are not always activated at birth and only become expressed in response to a life experience.
dichotomy
What is the word for when a psychologist takes on a strict singular view?
interactionism
What is the word for when a psychologist takes on a combined-perspective view?
blank slate / nurture
What is ‘tabula rasa’ translated as? Where in the nature-nurture debate does it fit in?
philosophical nativists / Descartes
Who believes in the nature debate? Who is a good example of this?
philosophical empiricists / Locke
Who believes in the nurture debate? Who is a good example of this?
genetic / evolutionary / neurotransmitter / social learning theory / behaviourist / nature / monozygotic / dizygotic
The nature-nurture debate (AO3)
Both nature and nurture perspectives are deterministic, they just differ in what factors they suggest control behaviour. Biological determinism for nature; environmental determinism for nurture with no role for free will.
Studies that show evidence for a biological (nature) origin of behaviour include ________ evidence for disorders like schizophrenia; ____________ arguments for mate preference; ________________ (dopamine/serotonin) evidence for aggression.
Studies that show evidence for an environmental (nurture) origin of behaviour include __________________ experiments such as Bandura’s bobo-doll and ___________ studies on conditioning processes.
Twin studies support the influence of _______ as _______________ twins often show higher concordance rates than _______________ twins for behaviours and disorders despite both sets sharing similar environments.
reductionism / parsimony / genes / neurotransmitters / behaviourists / stimulus-response
_____________ (AO1)
Explaining behaviour in terms of its fundamental constituent explanations, this is based in the scientific principle of ____________, that simple explanations for phenomena (like behaviour) are preferable to unnecessary complexity.
Biological reductionists suggest the most important fundamental explanations for behaviour are physical biology such as the presence of ______ /_________________.
Environmental reductionists such as _____________ suggest the most important fundamental explanations for behaviour are simple __________ mechanisms of reinforcement, with even complex behaviour being a series of S-R relationships.
holism / socio-cultural / levels of explanation
______________ (AO1)
Explaining behaviour using a range of variables across multiple levels including fundamental biological / environmental but also complex variables such how ___________ experiences influence behaviour.
_________________________ in psychology is the idea that behaviours can be explained from a lower / fundamental level (focusing on basic components) to explanations for behaviour including higher more complex explanations for behaviour.
isolating neurotransmitters / counter conditioning / humanistic / biomechanistic / cognitive / reductionist / falsifiability
Holism & Reductionism (AO3)
Reductionist approaches to mental health disorders have led to highly effective treatments such as ______________________ resulting in effective drug therapy (biological) and ______________________ (environmental) from identifying S/R.
_____________ psychologists such as Maslow & Rodgers argue humans cannot be reduced to simple ____________ processes. Holism appreciates interaction and the complexity of human experience that is in reductionism.
___________ psychologists are also reductionist in simplifying mental processes to simplistic theoretical models of information processing. They ignore the complexity of mental processes interacting with each other (and machine reductionist in comparing the human mind to a computer with the computer model)
Psychology is viewed more seriously as a science when it takes a _____________ approach in identifying fundamental variables, allowing for greater objective testability/_____________ using experimental techniques.
Reductionist approaches have allowed a more concrete understanding of the causes of human behaviour such as aggression, relationships and schizophrenia; however, explanations may lack validity due to lacking.
Maslow + Rogers
Who are some examples of Humanistic psychologists?
ideographic
_____________ approaches (A01)
This approach use qualitative techniques to study the individual in depth. Focus is on describing the uniqueness of the subject's personal experience, not providing general laws or theories of human behaviour that apply to all.
Research methods include case studies, unstructured interviews and observations.
Humanistic and psychodynamic psychology both use ideographic techniques.
Humanists see each individual as fundamentally unique, suggesting it is meaningless to produce general laws of behaviour.
Freud did produce laws of behaviour but created these from case studies such as little Hanz.
Other approaches use unusual case studies for theory generation (EG Clive Wearing, Phineas Gage, Tan)
qualitative
Which techniques do an ideographic approch use?
ideographic case studies
What did Freud produce his laws of behaviour from?
humanistic
Which approaches in psychology have an ideographic view?
psychodynamic
Which approaches in psychology have an ideographic-nomothetic view?
nomothetic
____________ Approaches (AO1)
Uses quantative techniques to study populations, then using this data construct general testable theories/laws/classifications that apply to all. Scientific experimentation that is objective and controlled is the primary research method. Data produced is assessed with inferential statistics before it is accepted.
Biological, behaviourist and cognitive psychologists are seen as having this approach as they assume the same principles apply across all humans and have developed and tested their theories by replicable experimental techniques.
biological / behaviourist / cognitive
Which approaches in psychology have a nomothetic view?
inferential statistics
In a nomothetic approach, what is data assesed with before it is accepted?
quantitative
Which techniques do a nomothetic approch use?
replication / superficial / ecological / extraneous / complementary
Nomothetic Approaches (AO3)
_______________: nomothetic techniques with clear procedures are replicable. Using statistical methods psychologists are able to generalise findings and predict future behaviour and create reliable treatments.
_____________: nomothetic criteria tested do not give a full picture of the individual. Two people with an OCD diagnosis are likely to have very different personal experiences even if they have the same gene in common.
Low ____________ validity; avoidance of _____________ variables due to being highly controlled.
______________: The strengths of both methods mean each is more appropriate in particular research circumstances. Using idiographic can give depth and description to established nomothetic laws of behaviour that provides high predictive value
nomothetic
In which approach is data objective?
hypothesis generation / subjectivity / complementary / ideographic / nomothetic
Ideographic Approaches (AO3)
__________________: idiographic case studies cannot demonstrate the validity of a hypothesis, due to the small sample. However unusual cases can generate new interesting areas of research, or overturn old incorrect theories.
______________: idiographic researcher's intensive data collection techniques such as longitudinal case-studies can result in the researcher losing objectivity and introducing bias into the interpretation of the data collected
___________________: The strengths of both methods mean each is more appropriate in particular research circumstances. Using ______________ can give depth and description to established ______________ laws of behaviour that provides high predictive value
ideographic
In which approach is data subjective?
stigmatised / biased
Ethical Implications (AO1)
Consideration taken into how the findings from psychological research could go on to actually influence the lives of the individuals studied, the subgroups investigated and wider society.
Effects on participants:
Taking part in the research was directly distressing.
Stigma from friends, family or the media.
Effects on wider public:
Findings could result in subgroups becoming ________________ or negative changes in wider society's behaviour.
_________ reporting could misrepresent the findings.
Findings could be used by governments to justify political decisions/laws that disadvantage groups.
Funding for future psychological research could be affected.
social sensitivity / ethical guidelines / cost-benefit analysis
Ethical Implications (AO1) - _______________
Sieber and Stanley (1988) "studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in research or the class of individuals represented by the research.”
The researcher has a duty to consider ethical implications and take steps to address them.
Following ________________ in protecting participants, such as offering counselling support and ensuring confidentiality.
Conducting a _______________ considering if the potential long term benefits of the research outweigh any short term costs.
Bowlby / cognitive / biological / evolutionary / reflexivity / under-represented
Ethical implications (AO3)
Examples of a socially sensitive studies/theories in psychology are:
_________ - effects on working mothers
Diagnosis of mental health, do ___________ explanations blame the victim?
____________ theories on crime and aggression giving excuses to criminals?
____________ explanations for relationships, legitimising a gender double standard?
How researchers can deal with the implications is suggested by Sieder and Stanley, carefully choosing the research question, methodology, how the information is going to be used in the institutional context and interpreted by society. This is a process of ____________, the researcher carefully considering their own role, responsibilities and influential position.
Excessive concern over socially sensitive research can lead to researchers avoiding topics such as ethnicity, gender or sexuality, leading to these groups becoming __________________ in psychological research.
Not considering the public's response to socially sensitive research can lead to negative effects for psychology as a area for study. Research by Milgram, Zimbardo and Harlow damaged psychology's reputation, and this can lead to less funding.
Sieber + Stanley
Who used the term social sensitivity to describe where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research?
research question / methodology / institutional context / interpretation & findings application / Seiber + Stanley
What are the 4 aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research? Who suggested this?
Note
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