Neuroscience final exam

ch 1-10 review. ADD exam 3 review!

neuroscience

_____ the scientific study of the nervous system, including in humans and animals.

It is interdisciplinary, often involving researchers trained in other fields.

It is not the same as neuropsychology or neurology, though related

independent, dependent, confounding

_____ variable: the variable you manipulate.

_____ variable: the outcome you measure.

_____ variable: other variables that may influence the outcome.

transcription, translation

______: DNA → RNA. A segment of DNA is copied into mRNA or tRNA.

______: RNA → Protein. Ribosomes use mRNA to synthesize proteins by linking amino acids.

tRNA

____brings the correct amino acid to the ribosome based on the codon.

gene expression

______ is the type and amount of proteins a cell makes, regulated at many points in this process.

grey matter, white matter

_____: neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, glial cells. Found in outer cerebrum (cortical GM) and subcortical nuclei.

_____: mostly myelinated axons and glia. Tracts connect neurons across the brain.

CNS, PNS

Functional divisions of the nervous system

______: Brain and spinal cord. Receives, integrates, stores information; controls output to PNS.

______: Ganglia and nerves. Detects and relays sensory info to CNS; carries motor commands to body.

parasympathetic, sympathetic

_____: rest and digest (homeostasis)

_____: fight or flight response

frontal lobe

Voluntary motor control, language production, executive function, working memory, attention.

parietal lobe

Somatosensation, spatial integration, posterior parietal cortex helps guide movement

temporal lobe

Auditory and olfactory info, speech comprehension, memory, emotion, visual processing (ventral stream)

occipital lobe

Primary visual cortex (V1) and extrastriate areas (V2–V4); involved in processing visual input

meninges

Three protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

ventricles

Cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); lined by ependymal cells; includes lateral, third, and fourth ventricles.

cranial nerves

12 nerves (I–XII); most emerge from the brainstem. Include somatic, visceral, special sensory, motor, and autonomic fibers.

phospholipid bilayer, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, negative

Composed of phospholipids: _____ (polar) head and _____ (fatty acid) tails.

Forms a selectively permeable membrane:

▪ Impermeable to macromolecules and ions due to hydration shells.

▪ Maintains ___ charge inside the membrane at rest.

dendrites, spines

Receive information, taper to an end, contain synapses with presynaptic terminals.

Contain dendritic ____ — sites of most excitatory glutamate synapses; can change shape/size.

soma

Contains organelles like nucleus, ER, Golgi; integrates signals

axon, terminal

Sends action potentials; ends in axon terminal where neurotransmitters are released.

Begins at axon hillock; initial segment rich in voltage-gated sodium channels.

Can be myelinated or unmyelinated, branched or unbranched.

_____ = presynaptic terminus/synaptic button

synapse

Site where information is transferred to another neuron, muscle, or gland.

astrocytes

type of glial cell.

Most abundant glia in CNS.

Provide structural and metabolic support; regulate extracellular ion concentration.

Participate in the blood-brain barrier (end feet).

Modulate synaptic transmission via gliotransmitters (e.g., ATP).

Respond to injury and form glial scars.

oligodendrocytes

Myelinate multiple adjacent axons.

Provide trophic support and inhibit axon regeneration.

schwann cells

Myelinate a single axon (or support unmyelinated axons).

Promote axon regeneration.

microglia

Immune cells of the CNS.

Scavenge damaged neurons, plaques; defend against infection.

Implicated in dendritic spine removal.

ependymal cells

Line ventricles and central canal; produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Form choroid plexus with capillaries.

pericytes

Support blood-brain barrier; regulate capillary blood flow

enteric glia

Found in GI system; regulate fluid secretion, motility, neurotransmission, immune signaling.

leak channels

Always open; ions move based on electrochemical gradient (e.g., resting K⁺ channels).

voltage gated channels

Open in response to changes in membrane potential; responsible for action potentials (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺).

ligand gated channels

Open when a neurotransmitter binds; selective for cations or Cl⁻.

mechanosensitive channels

Transduce physical stimuli into electrical signals; respond to stretch or mechanical forces.

Na, Cl, K

Concentrations of ions inside vs. outside neuron at rest:

Higher outside: __⁺, Ca²⁺, __⁻

Higher inside: __⁺

Summary: A neuron is like "a banana in a salty milk pool."

electrochemical driving force

membrane potential (Vm) – equilibrium potential (Ex).

▪ Determines ion movement direction and magnitude.

equilibrium potential

The voltage at which there is no net movement of a particular ion.

▪ Calculated using the Nernst equation.

▪ Balance between chemical (diffusion) and electrical gradients

depolarization, hyperpolarization

_____: Membrane potential becomes less negative (e.g., Na⁺ influx).

_____: Membrane potential becomes more negative (e.g., Cl⁻ influx or K⁺ efflux).

resting membrane potential

~-70 mV

Inside is more negative than outside.

resting state, depolarization, rising phase, falling phase, undershoot, resting state, absolute refractory, relative refractory

stages of action potential:

____: Voltage-gated channels closed; resting potential maintained.

____: Threshold reached, voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open → rapid Na⁺ influx.

____: Na⁺ continues to enter; membrane potential becomes positive.

____: Na⁺ channels inactivate; K⁺ channels open → K⁺ efflux.

____: Membrane potential becomes more negative than resting (hyperpolarization). Return to ____: Channels reset, membrane returns to -70 mV.

_____ period: Na⁺ channels inactivated; no new action potential possible.

_____ period: Na⁺ channels resetting; new action potential possible but requires stronger stimulus.

electrical, chemical

____ synapses: Use gap junctions (connexons made of connexins).

Allow direct flow of ions and small molecules between neurons.

Very fast; can synchronize activity of neurons.

____ synapses: Use neurotransmitter release from presynaptic neuron into synaptic cleft.

Slower than electrical synapses.

More versatile: can excite or inhibit, modulate gene expression, etc.

ionotropic, metabotropic

____ receptors: Ligand-gated ion channels.

Fast/direct synaptic transmission

____ receptors: G-protein-coupled receptors (or receptor tyrosine kinases). Slow/indirect synaptic transmission (neuromodulation)

can change cell metabolism, excitability, or gene expression

receptor, properties

the effects of a neurotransmitter depend on the ____, not the neurotransmitter itself.

It is determined by the ____ of the receptor

fMRI

Measures blood oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) signal.

Noninvasive; shows areas of brain activity during tasks.

Invented in 1992.

EEG

Measures electrical activity from surface electrodes on the scalp.

Cortical activity only.

Good temporal resolution; less spatial precision than fMRI.

Records event-related potentials (ERPs).

Been used for about 100 years.

Electrophysiology

Measures and manipulates electrical properties of neurons directly.

Often done using microelectrodes guided by microscopy.

Provides precise information about potentials inside/outside neurons.

Can be done in vivo or in vitro.

photoreceptors, bipolar, horizontal, amacrine, retinal ganglion

_____ (rods and cones): Capture light, release glutamate

____ cells: Receive glutamate, activate amacrine and retinal ganglion cells

____ cells: GABAergic, modulate photoreceptor to bipolar signal

____cells: Lateral inhibition; GABA, glycine, ACh, neuropeptides

____ cells: Sole output; axons form optic nerve and project to brain

optic nerve, optic radiation

pathway of visual processing in brain:

Retina -> _____ -> Optic chiasm -> LGN of thalamus -> _____ -> Visual cortex

ventral, dorsal

____ stream ("what" pathway): V1 -> V2-V4 -> inferior temporal cortex -> Object identification, parvocellular input

____ stream ("where"/"how" pathway): V1 -> V2 -> V5 -> V6 -> posterior parietal cortex -> Visuospatial information, magnocellular input

hair, brainstem, auditory

pathway of auditory processing:

____ cells -> Spiral ganglion cells/CNVIII -> _____ -> Thalamus -> _____ cortex

temporal

where is the auditory cortex located?

• In the _____ lobe, specifically the superior temporal gyrus.

otolith organs, semicircular canals

____: Sense linear movement; hair cells respond to otoconia

____: Sense head rotation; hair cells respond due to inertia

thalamus, cortex

What is unique about the olfactory system's pathway?

Olfaction is the only sensory modality that does NOT relay through the ____ before reaching ____

GPCR, GPCR, ion channels, ion channels, GPCR

What are the receptor types for the five primary tastes?

Sweet- ____

Umami- ____

Salty- ______

sour- _____

bitter- ______

insula

Where is the gustatory cortex located?

globus pallidus, substantia nigra

What regions are part of the basal ganglia?

striatum

_____

subthalamic nucleus

_____

acetylcholine

What neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction?

tolerance

What is it called when the same dose of a substance has less effect overtime?

antagonist

what molecule blocks a ligand from binding by blocking the receptor?

dopamine

what neurotransmitter system do nearly all drugs of abuse affect?

nicotine

which drug of abuse binds to cholinergic receptors?

hepatic portal system

What system transports substances from the digestive tract to the liver?

circadian rhythm

what is the 24 hour biological cycle called?

light/darkness

what is the main influence on melatonin release?

wernickes area

damage to what area results in fluent but incomprehensible language?

adenosine

which neurotransmitter may cause sleepiness

corpus callosum

name one white matter tract connecting the brains hemispheres

habituation

what is the suppression of a reflexive behavior after repeated stimulation?

concept cells

what neurons respond to highly specific stimuli across senses?

encoding, retrieval

what are the three phases of memory processing

____, consolidation, _____

striatum

what brain region is involved in habit formation?

inferotemporal cortex

what area is involved in visual memory, including faces and places?

default mode network

which brain network is active at rest and deactivated during tasks?

reticular formation

what brainstem network is necessary for alertness?

neglect

what condition results from damage to the right parietal lobe, leading to attention to only one side?

lateral intraparietal cortex

which brain area creates a priority map from attentional inputs?

integrated information theory

which theory says consciousness arises from cause-effect complexes?

amygdala

what brain region is key in fear conditioning?

hypothalamic, pituitary, adrenal

HPA axis stands for what

dopamine

what neurotransmitter is most implicated in schizophrenia?

cannon bard theory

which emotion theory states feelings and physiological responses happen simultaneously?

negative symptoms

what are diminished emotion, pleasure, and motivation symptoms in schizophrenia called

parietal

what lobe is shown in yellow

functional magnetic resonance imaging

which neuroimaging method measures bold signal in awake humans

sodium

which ion rushes into the cell during an action potential

premotor area

which motor cortex region activates before movement for novel tasks?

diencephalon

from which neural tube vesicle does the thalamus form

wernicke-geschwind model

name this language model