Sociocultural psychology

Social Identity Theory

• Social Identity: The identity an individual forms based on their group memberships.

• An individual’s social identity is shaped by the various ingroup(s) they belong to.

• Ingroups are groups to which an individual belongs, and outgroups are those they do not belong to.

• Ingroup Membership: While individuals can choose some ingroups, others (like race or sex) are beyond their control.

• Prejudice & Discrimination: Negative attitudes toward outgroups can lead to prejudice and discrimination.

• Social Categorization: The process of grouping others based on specific group characteristics, which requires little cognitive energy.

• Social Comparison: The process by which individuals or groups compare themselves to others, leading to feelings of superiority or inferiority relative to outgroups.

Social Identity Theory -

Strengths

• Explains group behaviour, prejudice, and conformity.

• Supported by research

• applicable to many contexts

Limitations

• Reductionist - Too focused on group identity – ignores other influences.

• low ecological validity

• Doesn’t explain why some people don’t conform to group norms.

Social Identity Theory - Sherif’s Robbers Cave Study (1954) 1

Aim:

• To test if prejudice is caused by competition between an ingroup and an outgroup.

• To investigate if intergroup conflict could be reduced through the introduction of superordinate goals.

Procedure:

• Week 1: Two groups of 11-year-old boys were unaware of each other. Upon discovering the other group, they immediately became hostile.

• Sample: Opportunity sample of 22 boys from Oklahoma, aged 11, from middle-class Protestant families.

• 3 Stages:

  • Stage 1: In-groups were created by having boys participate in cooperative tasks.

  • Stage 2: The groups were introduced to competition, leading to name-calling and hostility (e.g., 'stinkers', 'sneaks').

  • Stage 3: Superordinate goals were introduced to reduce conflict. Initially, activities like watching movies were ineffective. The water tank activity helped temporarily, but conflicts resumed during meals.

Results:

• Stage 1: Groups (Eagles and Rattlers) established their own rules and norms.

• Stage 2: Hostility and territoriality increased. The Eagles burned the Rattlers' flag, and fights broke out.

• Stage 3: Social activities didn’t reduce conflict, but superordinate goals (e.g., water tank activity) helped reduce hostility over time.

• Overall: More boys formed friendships with the outgroup after the introduction of superordinate goals compared to Stage 2.

Conclusions:

• Ingroup competition increases group favoritism and hostility toward outgroups.

• Social contact alone is insufficient to reduce prejudice, but superordinate goals can be effective in reducing prejudice.

• This study led to the development of Realistic Conflict Theory.

Social Identity Theory - Sherif’s Robbers Cave Study (1954) 1 - Evaluation

• Generalisability: Limited – all boys from Oklahoma, same age/background, sporty, so not representative.

• Reliability: High – carefully planned with controlled stages.

• Applicability: Useful – shows superordinate goals reduce prejudice; can be applied in schools.

• Validity: High ecological validity – natural setting, boys unaware they were in a study.

• Ethics: Issues – no informed consent from boys, deception used, no mention of debrief.

Social Identity Theory - Abrams et al. (1990)

Aim:
To investigate if in-group identity (based on Social Identity Theory) affects conformity.

Procedure:

• 50 psychology students (23 males, 27 females).

• Used Asch-style line judgment task.

• Participants were told the others were either in-group (psychology students) or out-group (history students).

• The real participant was always last to respond.

Results:

• 77% conformed at least once.

• Overall 32% of responses were conforming.

• Higher conformity when confederates were perceived as in-group.

Conclusion:
Social categorisation increases conformity — people are more likely to conform to judgments made by in-group members.

Social Identity Theory - Abrams et al. (1990) - evaluation

• G: Limited – only uni psych students, not very diverse.

• R: High – standardised Asch-style procedure, replicable.

• A: Useful – shows how in-group identity affects conformity.

• V: Strong internal validity, but low ecological validity (artificial task).

• E: Some deception, but no major harm.

Social Cognitive Theory

• Learning occurs through observation of role models.

• Involves four processes:

  1. Attention – noticing the behaviour

  2. Retention – remembering it

  3. Reproduction – ability to imitate it

  4. Motivation – desire to repeat it

• Includes vicarious reinforcement – learning through others’ consequences.

• Emphasises self-efficacy – belief in one's own ability to succeed.

• Suggests we’re influenced by environment but have autonomy over our actions.

Social Cognitive Theory -Evaluation

Strengths

• Supported by research (e.g., Bandura, Huesmann).

• Explains learning through role models and media.

• Applies to real life (e.g., education, parenting).

• Emphasizes personal control (self-efficacy).

Limitations

• May over-focus on the environment.

• Can be overly simplistic (reductionist).

• Hard to measure internal mental processes.

• May not apply equally across all cultures.

Social Cognitive Theory - Bandura’s bobo doll study (1961) 1

Aim:

• Demonstrate that learning can occur through observation of role models,

procedure:

• Thirty-six boys and 36 girls, aged 3 to 6, were divided into groups based on an evaluation of aggression by parents and teachers.

• Group 1: exposed to adults who showed aggression by beating up a Bobo Doll.

• Group 2 observed an adult who displayed no aggression.

• Group 3 was a controlled group that did not see any model. (Control)

results:

• Children with the aggressive model showed more aggression

• Boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression.

Conclusions:

• Social Learning Theory is demonstrated through observational learning

• Children learn through imitation, according to social learning theory

• Boys are more aggressive than girls - physically

Social Cognitive Theory - Bandura’s bobo doll study (1961) 1 - Evaluation

G - Low: Limited sample (young children from similar backgrounds), may not apply to adults or different cultures.

R - High: Controlled lab experiment with standardized procedures, can be replicated.

A - High: Findings useful in real-world contexts like parenting and media guidelines.

V - Internal: Strong due to control over variables.

• External: Low ecological validity; the experiment was artificial.

• Short-term: Doesn't account for long-term effects.

E - Low: Deception, lack of informed consent, potential psychological harm.

Social Cognitive Theory - Huesmann et al. (2003) 2

Aim:
To investigate whether exposure to TV violence in childhood predicts aggression in adulthood.

Procedure:

• Longitudinal study of 557 children in Chicago, followed up 15 years later.

• Meta-analysis used to assess links between childhood TV habits and adult aggression.

• Looked at factors like gender, identification with characters, and family environment.

Results:

• Strong correlation between childhood TV violence exposure and adult aggression in both males and females.

• Parent influences matter but don’t fully explain the relationship.

Conclusion:

• Supports Social Learning Theory — aggressive behavior is learned through observing violence in media.

• Long-term effects of media violence are significant and not just due to naturally aggressive children.

Social Cognitive Theory - Huesmann et al. (2003) 2 - evaluaction

Generalisability

• study was based in Chicago, an individualistic culture, limiting its relevance to other cultural contexts.

• ✔ The large sample size (557 participants) makes it applicable to similar populations.

Reliability

• used standardised measures and controlled for variables, ensuring internal reliability.

• Longitudinal design adds to reliable results over time.

Applicability

• real-world application in parenting, media regulation, and education policy.

Validity

• High ecological validity due to naturalistic observation

• As a correlational study, it cannot prove causation

Ethics

• The study is non-invasive and caused minimal risk of psychological harm.

Stereotype formation

Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about social or cultural groups, formed to reduce information overload and make sense of the world. While they simplify social understanding, they often lead to prejudice and discrimination.
Illusory correlation is a cognitive bias where people believe there's a link between two variables (e.g., a group and a trait) without real evidence. This bias contributes to stereotype formation and shows how people may label others based on incorrect assumptions.

Stereotype formation - Evaluation

Strengths

• Backed by research (e.g. Hamilton & Gifford)

• Explains how we mentally simplify the world

• Useful for understanding prejudice

Limitactions

• Too focused on thinking, ignores social/emotional factors

• Doesn’t explain all stereotypes

• Oversimplifies complex behaviour

Stereotype formation - Hamilton & Gifford (1976) 1

Aim:

• To investigate illusory correlation between group size and negative behaviour.

Procedure:

• 70 university students.

• Participants read descriptions of two fictional groups (A and B).

• Group A (majority): 18 positive, 8 negative behaviours.

• Group B (minority): 9 positive, 4 negative behaviours.

• Participants asked to assign behaviours to each group.

Results:

• Despite equal behaviour ratios, participants attributed more negative behaviours to Group B (minority).

• Illusory correlation formed between Group B and undesirable behaviour.

Conclusion:

• Rare behaviours (negativity) and rare group size (minority) stood out more, causing an illusory correlation.

• This supports how stereotypes can form from cognitive biases.

Stereotype formation - Hamilton & Gifford (1976) 1 - Evaluation

Generalisability:

• Limited sample (70 university students); mostly from one demographic, so findings may not apply to wider populations.

Reliability:

• Lab experiment with controlled procedure, making it replicable and reliable.

Applicability:

• Helps explain how stereotypes form in real-life contexts like media or minority groups.

Validity:

• High internal validity due to control of variables, but low ecological validity since the task was artificial.

Ethics:

• No major ethical issues; participants were not harmed and deception was minimal.

Stereotype formation - Sherif’s Robbers Cave Study (1954) 2

Aim:

• To test if prejudice is caused by intergroup competition.

• To see if superordinate goals can reduce conflict.

Procedure:

• 22 boys (aged 11–12) from similar backgrounds at a summer camp.

• Split into 3 stages:

  1. In-group formation through cooperative tasks.

  2. Intergroup competition created hostility (e.g. name-calling, flag burning).

  3. Superordinate goals (e.g. fixing water supply) introduced to reduce conflict.

Results:

• Stage 1: Group identities formed ("Eagles" & "Rattlers").

• Stage 2: Strong intergroup hostility.

• Stage 3: Superordinate goals reduced conflict; more cross-group friendships formed.

Conclusion:

• Competition increases in-group favouritism and out-group hostility.

• Contact alone isn't enough to reduce prejudice, but shared goals can help.

• Supports Realistic Conflict Theory.

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Stereotype formation - Sherif’s Robbers Cave Study (1954) 2 - Evaluation

Generalisability:

• Limited: Only 22 white, middle-class 11–12-year-old boys from Oklahoma.

• Gender, age, and cultural bias.

Reliability:

• High control and standardised procedures increase reliability.

• Repeated phases show consistent behaviours (e.g. hostility in stage 2).

Applicability:

• Practical applications in reducing prejudice (e.g. teamwork in schools).

• Supports use of superordinate goals in conflict resolution.

Validity:

• High ecological validity (naturalistic camp setting).

• Boys were unaware they were in a study, reducing demand characteristics.

Ethics:

• Ethical concerns: deception, no informed consent from participants, possible psychological harm (stress from conflict).

Stereotype Threat

• Stereotype Threat (ST) occurs when an individual’s performance on a task is impaired when they feel that pre-existing stereotypes will be used to judge them on their performance

• not the same as actively being stereotyped by others it is when the individual knows that the stereotype already exists and feels that others are already judging them on this basis

• a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy

• can be negative even when it appears to be positive

Stereotype Threat - Evaluation

Strengths:

• Backed by research (e.g., Steele & Aronson).

• Explains real-world gaps in performance.

• Reflects lived psychological experiences.

Limitations:

• Can be overly simplistic (reductionist).

• Doesn’t affect everyone the same way.

• Hard to measure what’s actually causing the effect.

Stereotype Threat - Spencer et al. (1999) 1

Aim:

• To investigate stereotype threat and its effect on women’s math performance.

Procedure:

• 28 men and 28 women from a psych class at University of Michigan.
  Experiment 1:

• Took either an easy or difficult math test.

• Performance was equal on the easy test, but men outperformed women on the difficult one.
  Experiment 2:

• All participants took the same test, but were told either that it does or does not produce gender differences.

Results:

• Women did worse when told the test shows gender differences.

• No performance gap when stereotype was dismissed.

Conclusion:

• Stereotype threat impairs women’s performance in math, especially when gender differences are highlighted.

Stereotype Threat - Spencer et al. (1999) 1 - Evaluation

Generalisability

• Small sample from one university → limits generalisability.

• Only tested college students, not applicable to all age groups.

Reliability

• Lab experiment → high control and replicability.

Applicability

• Useful for understanding gender gaps in STEM performance.

• Can inform educational practices to reduce stereotype threat.

Validity

• High internal validity due to controlled conditions.

• Lacks ecological validity — real-world tests may involve more variables.

Ethics

• No major ethical issues.

• Possible mild stress due to stereotype activation, but minimal harm overall.

Stereotype Threat - Steele & Aronson (1995) 2

Aim:

To investigate the effect of stereotype threat on test performance in African Americans.

Procedure:

• African American and White students took a verbal ability test.

• In one condition, they were told it tested intelligence (activating stereotype threat).

• In the other, they were told it tested problem-solving (no stereotype threat).

• Participants were randomly assigned to conditions.

Results:

• African Americans performed worse than White Americans when they believed the test measured intelligence.

• Performance was equal in the non-threatening condition.

Conclusion:

Stereotype threat can negatively impact performance, but this effect can be reduced when the stereotype is not made salient.

Stereotype Threat - Steele & Aronson (1995) 2 - Evaluation

Generalisability

• Limited generalisability due to using only university students.

• Focused on African-American and White American participants in the U.S.

Reliability

• Standardised test procedure allows replication → fairly reliable.

• Multiple conditions strengthen consistency of findings.

Applicability

• Relevant to education and workplace settings.

• Shows how stereotype threat can impact academic performance.

Validity

• High internal validity due to experimental design and control of variables.

• Low ecological validity — real-life testing environments may differ.

Ethics

• No major harm caused, but could cause discomfort due to stereotype activation.

• Participants were debriefed.

Culture and behaviour (Conformity)

Culture

• A set of shared ideas, behaviours, attitudes, and traditions passed down through generations, resistant to change.

  • Universal culture applies to everyone.

  • National culture is defined by regional boundaries or common people.

  • Interpersonal culture influences individual interactions and social groups.

Conformity

• Conformity is when individuals align their beliefs or behaviours to fit a group consensus, as opposed to obedience, which is following authority orders.

• Normative social influence occurs when people conform to fit in or belong to the group.

• Informational social influence happens when people conform because they believe the group is better informed.

Cultural Differences in Conformity

• Conformity aligns more with collectivist cultures where the group’s needs are prioritized over the individual.

• Individualistic cultures value the individual, focusing on traits like self-reliance and independence.

Hofstede’s Definition of Culture

• Culture is “the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others."

• He proposed Cultural dimensions to understand the values that shape national cultures.

Culture and behaviour (Conformity) - Evaluation

Strengths: Cross-cultural studies support the idea that culture influences conformity; helps explain different behaviours across societies; practical real-world applications; distinction between types of influence is useful.

Limitations: May oversimplify cultures; risk of ethnocentrism; collectivism vs. individualism is too broad; some studies lack real-world relevance.

Culture and behaviour (Conformity) - Berry (1967) 1

Aim:

• Investigate cultural differences in conformity between the Temne of Sierra Leone and the Inuit of Baffin Island.

Procedure:

• Participants: Traditional and transitional Temne, Inuit, and Scots.

• Task: Match a standard line with one of eight lines. Given false information about others' choices to test conformity.

• Measured: How far participants' choices deviated from the correct answer.

Results:

• Temne (collectivist) showed high conformity.

• Inuit (individualist) showed low conformity.

• Scots were in between; transitional groups showed lower conformity than traditional groups.

Conclusion:

• Cultural values (collectivism vs. individualism) influence conformity.

• Supports Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory.

Culture and behaviour (Conformity) - Berry (1967) 1 - Evaluation

• Generalisability:
  Cross-cultural sample (Temne, Inuit, Scots) increases generalisability.
  Small transitional samples may limit full generalisation.

• Reliability:

  Standardised procedure (line task) makes it replicable.

• Applicability:
  Supports Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and is useful for understanding conformity across cultures.

• Validity:
  Task was artificial (line judgment), reducing ecological validity.
  Demand characteristics possible since participants were told about others’ answers.

• Ethics:
  No major ethical concerns reported (low risk study).

Culture and behaviour (Conformity) - Bond & Smith (1996) 2

Aim:

• To investigate how conformity varies across cultures.

Procedure:

• Meta-analysis of 133 Asch-style studies from 17 different countries.

• Participants judged line lengths while surrounded by confederates giving wrong answers.

• Compared conformity rates across individualist and collectivist cultures.

Results:

• Higher conformity rates in collectivist cultures (e.g., Fiji, Japan).

• Lower conformity rates in individualist cultures (e.g., USA, Britain).

Conclusion:

• Cultural values (collectivism vs. individualism) influence levels of conformity.

Culture and behaviour (Conformity) - Bond & Smith (1996) 2 - Evaluation

• Generalisability:
  Meta-analysis of 133 Asch replications across 17 countries gives broad cultural coverage.
  Limited to male participants in artificial lab tasks.

• Reliability:
  Uses a highly standardised paradigm (Asch line task) and rigorous meta-analytic methods, ensuring consistent findings.

• Applicability:
  Offers valuable insights for cross-cultural psychology, education, and multinational teamwork.

• Validity:
  Strong internal validity from controlled Asch studies.
  Low ecological validity (lab setting, trivial task) and potential publication bias.

• Ethics:
  Meta-analysis itself poses minimal risk.
  Original studies involved deception and excluded females.

Flashbulb memory (Culture and cognition)

• Culture: A stable set of ideas, behaviours, and traditions passed through generations; resistant to change.

• Hofstede: Identified cultural dimensions — values that organise national cultures.

• Collectivist cultures: Prioritise group needs (e.g., family, community).

• Individualistic cultures: Prioritise individual goals (e.g., independence, ambition).

• Flashbulb Memory (FBM):

  • Proposed by Brown & Kulik (1977).

  • Special, vivid, emotional memories of shocking or significant events.

  • Can stem from personal experiences or hearing about major events (e.g., disasters, assassinations).

  • Although vivid, research questions their accuracy over time.

Flashbulb memory (Culture and cognition) - Evaluation

Strengths

• Useful for explaining behavior across cultures and understanding emotional memories.

• Promotes cross-cultural research and has real-world applications.

Limitations

• Hofstede’s model can stereotype cultures and oversimplify.

• Flashbulb memories (FBMs) feel vivid but are not always accurate.

• Research often relies on biased self-reports and Western samples.

Flashbulb memory (Culture and cognition) - Kulkofsky et al. (2011) 1

Aim:

• To investigate cultural differences (collectivistic vs. individualistic) in the formation of flashbulb memories (FBMs).

Procedure:

• 274 middle-class adults from five countries.

• Participants recalled public events and answered questions about how they learned about the events and their personal relevance.

• Surveys were carefully translated to avoid bias.

Results:

• In collectivistic cultures (e.g., China), personal importance and emotional intensity were less predictive of FBMs than in individualistic cultures (e.g., UK).

• National importance influenced FBM formation equally across all cultures.

Conclusion:

• Individualistic cultures encourage emotional expression and memory rehearsal, leading to stronger FBMs.

• Collectivistic cultures inhibit self-expression, resulting in fewer FBMs based on personal emotional experiences.

Flashbulb memory (Culture and cognition) - Kulkofsky et al. (2011) 1 - Evaluation

• G: Good cross-cultural sample (five countries) but all participants were middle-class, which limits generalisability across different socio-economic groups.

• R: High reliability — standardised questionnaires and back-translation of surveys reduced translation bias and ensured consistent procedures across cultures.

• A: Useful for understanding how culture shapes memory formation, with real-world applications in education, therapy, and media communication across cultures.

• V: Relies on self-reported memories, which can be inaccurate or affected by memory reconstruction over time — this lowers internal validity.

• Strong ecological validity because it asked about real public events, not artificial lab tasks.

• E: No major ethical issues — participants simply recalled memories and answered questions, with informed consent likely obtained.

Flashbulb memory (Culture and cognition) - Mullen et al (1994) 2

Aim:

• To investigate differences in earliest memories between individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

Procedure:

• 768 undergraduate students from three groups: Caucasian, Asian, and Asian-American.

• Participants completed a questionnaire about birth order, gender, culture, and earliest memory.

• They were asked to describe their earliest memory.

Results:

• Asians and Asian-Americans reported their earliest memories about 6 months later than Caucasians.

• First-born children and females tended to recall earlier memories than later-borns and males.

Conclusion:

• Individualistic cultures encourage children to create elaborate, self-focused narratives, influencing them to form and remember early personal memories more vividly and earlier.

Flashbulb memory (Culture and cognition) - Mullen et al (1994) 2 - Evaluation

• Generalisability: Good sample size, but only undergraduates from three cultural groups.

• Reliability: Standardised questionnaires make it replicable, but memory recall is subjective.

• Application: Useful for understanding cultural influences on memory in education and therapy.

• Validity: Real memories increase ecological validity, but retrospective recall may lower accuracy.

• Ethics: Low risk, though recalling memories could cause slight emotional discomfort.

Acculturation

• Acculturation is how people adapt to a new culture when they move from their original one.

• It can be positive but may also cause acculturative stress if the new culture conflicts with their original values.

• Berry (2008) proposed four acculturation strategies:

  • Assimilation: Adopting the new culture fully, abandoning the original.

  • Integration: Maintaining one's original culture while also engaging with the new one.

  • Separation: Keeping only the original culture, avoiding interaction with the new one.

  • Marginalisation: Rejecting both the original and the new culture.

• Acculturation is bi-directional, meaning both the migrant and the dominant culture influence each other.

Acculturation - Evaluaction

Berry’s theory of acculturation helps explain how migrants adapt to new cultures through four strategies. It’s useful because it highlights the bi-directional nature of acculturation — migrants influence and are influenced by the host culture.

However, the theory can be too simplistic. It doesn’t account for the complexity of real-life acculturation, where individuals might not fit neatly into one category. It also overlooks factors like discrimination, trauma, and forced migration, which can greatly impact how people adjust.

Acculturation - Berry (2006) 1

• Aim:
  Investigate how immigrants adapt psychologically and socioculturally, and how this relates to their acculturation strategies.

• Procedure:
  8000 youths from 26 cultural backgrounds completed structured questionnaires rating psychological and sociocultural adaptation on a 1–5 Likert scale.

• Results:

  • Four acculturation profiles emerged: Integration, Assimilation (National profile), Separation (Ethnic profile), and Diffuse (mixed).

  • Integration led to the best psychological and sociocultural outcomes.

  • No major adaptation differences between immigrant and national youth, but differences within immigrant groups based on strategy.

  • Boys showed slightly better psychological adaptation; girls better sociocultural adaptation.

• Conclusion:
  Integration is the most effective strategy for successful adaptation.

Acculturation - Berry (2006) 1 - Evaluation

G - Generalisability:

• Strength: Large, diverse sample of 8000 participants across 26 cultural backgrounds from 13 countries.

• Limitation: Focus on immigrant youth, may not fully represent adult experiences or non-immigrant populations.

R - Reliability:

• Strength: Use of structured questionnaires with Likert scale ensures consistent data collection.

• Limitation: Self-reported data may lead to response biases.

A - Applications:

• Strength: Practical implications for understanding acculturation strategies and helping immigrants adapt better in new cultures.

• Limitation: Results may not apply to all migrant groups, as certain cultures may have unique adaptation processes.

V - Validity:

• Strength: Comprehensive approach covering both psychological and sociocultural adaptation.

• Limitation: Reliance on self-reporting may not fully capture the complexity of acculturation experiences.

E - Ethical Considerations:

• Strength: Informed consent likely obtained; no mention of harmful procedures.

• Limitation: Cultural biases in questionnaire design or interpretations could affect validity.

Acculturation - Torres et al (2012) 2

Torres et al:

Aim:

• To investigate the effect of discrimination on acculturative stress

Method:

• 669 participants from the Midwest Region of the US (identified as Mexican, Mexican-American or Chicano)

• A series of questionnaires to measure:

  • perceived discrimination (related to jobs, healthcare, being in public and education)

  • acculturative stress (stress related to language level)

  • psychological distress (depression, anxiety and physical symptoms)

• Measured integration into mainstream culture

Results:

• Correlations: -high levels of perceived discrimination = high levels of acculturative stress; -high levels of acculturative stress = high levels of psychological distress.

Conclusion:

• the more integrated the Latino the lower the levels of acculturative stress caused by discrimination, and hence psychological distress. The more integrated the Latino, the lower the levels of acculturative stress caused by discrimination, and hence psychological distress.

Acculturation - Torres et al (2012) 2 - Evaluation

G - Generalisability:

• The sample is specific to Mexican, Mexican-American, and Chicano participants in the Midwest US, limiting broader applicability.

R - Reliability:

• Structured questionnaires provide consistent data collection, and the correlation between perceived discrimination and stress supports reliable findings.

A - Applicability:

• Findings are relevant to understanding the psychological impact of discrimination and can inform immigrant support policies.

V - Validity:

• Self-report questionnaires could introduce bias, but the strong correlations suggest the study measures its intended variables well.

E - Ethical Considerations:

• The study ensures anonymity and poses minimal risk, but discussing discrimination could emotionally impact vulnerable participants.

Enculturation

• Cultural Socialization: The process of becoming a member of your culture by learning the values, beliefs, norms, and expectations of your society.

• Key Elements:

  • Values and Beliefs: Learning what the culture cares about.

  • Norms and Expectations: Learning behaviors that are expected and the roles one should play in society.

• How Socialization Happens:

  • Direct Tuition: Explicit teaching of beliefs, values, and behaviors by parents, teachers, or other members of society.

  • Participatory Learning: Engaging in activities that instill specific values and expectations.

  • Observational Learning: Learning through observing and imitating others.

• Cultural socialization in gender theory explains how individuals learn gender roles through three key processes:

  1. Direct Tuition: Authority figures (like parents and teachers) explicitly teach children what behaviors are expected based on their gender (e.g., "boys don't cry," or encouraging girls to play with dolls).

  2. Participatory Learning: Children engage in activities that promote gender-specific behaviors (e.g., girls doing domestic chores, boys playing sports).

  3. Observational Learning: Children observe and imitate gendered behaviors from others in their culture (e.g., seeing fathers work and mothers care for the home).

Enculturation - Evaluation

Strengths

1. Explains Gender Role Development: Provides a framework for how gendered behaviors are learned from an early age.

2. Applicable Across Contexts: The theory is flexible and can be applied to various cultural settings.

3. Aligns with Developmental Psychology: Supports how socialization processes fit with broader psychological theories of development.

Limitations

1. Cultural Bias: Assumes all societies use similar socialization methods, which may not be true in all cultures.

2. Over-Simplification: The theory simplifies the complex socialization process and doesn't fully capture the dynamic nature of it.

3. Lack of Attention to Individual Agency: Focuses mainly on societal influence and doesn’t fully consider individual resistance or interpretation of norms.

4. Measurement Challenges: Hard to measure cultural socialization in practice, making empirical testing difficult.

Enculturation - Fagot (1978) 1

Aim:
To observe parental reactions to behaviors deemed inappropriate for a child's gender based on American cultural norms at the time.

Method:

• 24 families (12 with boys, 12 with girls).

• Observations of toddlers and their parents in their homes using a checklist.

• 5, 60-minute observations for each family over five weeks.

• Observers used time sampling, recording behavior every 60 seconds.

• Two observers to ensure inter-coder reliability (0.93 for behavior, 0.83 for parent reactions).

Results:

• Boys were left alone more often than girls.

• Parents responded more positively to boys playing with blocks and girls playing with dolls.

• Parents responded negatively to boys manipulating objects and girls engaging in large motor activities (e.g., running, jumping).

• Fathers were more focused on sex-typed behavior than mothers.

• Parents' perceptions of interactions did not align with observations, suggesting unconscious behavior.

Conclusion:
The study demonstrates enculturation, as parents teach children about what is considered appropriate behavior for their gender according to cultural norms. This is done through direct reinforcement and correction.

Enculturation - Fagot (1978) 1- Evaluation

G - Generalizability:

• Limited generalizability due to the small sample (24 families) from a single cultural context (American culture in the 1970s).

• The study may not apply to other cultures with different gender norms or contemporary settings.

R - Reliability:

• High reliability due to the use of an observation checklist and inter-coder reliability (0.93 for behavior, 0.83 for parent reactions).

• Consistent methodology with repeated observations over five weeks.

A - Applications:

• Highlights the role of parents in gender socialization, showing how parental reactions to gendered behaviors shape children's understanding of gender roles.

• Useful for understanding the role of enculturation in gender development.

V - Validity:

• Internal validity is supported by the detailed observation methods, though observer bias is always a concern with observational studies.

• External validity may be limited as it focuses on one cultural context and may not apply to non-Western or modern settings.

E - Ethical considerations:

• Ethical concerns related to observing family behavior without interference, though the study was non-invasive and aimed to understand socialization patterns.

• No major ethical violations, but the parents' awareness of being observed could influence their behavior

Enculturation - Wood (2002) 2

Aim:

• To study gender role enculturation as a result of parenting and toy selection.

Procedure:

• 48 children (24 boys and 24 girls), aged 24-72 months, participated.

• Each child played with an adult (either their mother, father, another mother, or another father) for 15-minute sessions.

• The children were matched with adults based on characteristics like age, education, and occupation.

• In each session, there were 15 toys (5 feminine, masculine, and gender-neutral) placed in the room.

• The adult's toy selection was recorded during play.

• Afterward, adults were asked to sort the toys into gender categories.

Results:

• Adults' categorization of toys did not fully match traditional gender norms, suggesting a shift in perceptions of toy functions.

• When playing with boys, adults mostly interacted with masculine toys.

• For girls, there was more flexibility in the toys chosen.

Conclusion:

• The study possibly reaffirms gender roles and expectations through play interactions, with adults reinforcing gendered toy preferences during play sessions

Enculturation - Wood (2002) 2 - Evaluation

G - Generalizability:

• The sample size (48 children) is relatively small, which may limit generalizability. The study is based on children aged 24-72 months, so it is most applicable to early childhood and may not represent older children or different age groups.

R - Reliability:

• The experiment used a controlled environment with clear procedures, including matching adults based on characteristics like age and occupation. The consistent measurement of toy selection and playtime increases the reliability of the results. The categorization of toys was done by adults in a structured way, further supporting reliability.

A - Application:

• The study provides insights into gender role enculturation and how toy selection by parents can reinforce gender norms. This understanding can be applied to parenting strategies, educational settings, and toy marketing.

V - Validity:

• The study has high ecological validity since the children interacted with adults in a natural play setting. However, the potential bias of adults unconsciously selecting gendered toys may affect internal validity, as the behavior may be influenced by cultural expectations rather than genuine preference.

E - Ethical Considerations:

• There are no significant ethical issues in the study, as the children's participation was based on parental consent. The study's minimal intervention in play allows it to adhere to ethical guidelines.

Globalisation

1. Globalisation:

   • The process of cultural interaction and integration, facilitated by international trade, travel, and technology.

   • Leads to cultural globalisation, where people across the world consume and share elements of different cultures.

2. Local vs. Global Identity:

   • Local identity: The sense of belonging to a specific community or society, differing from one place to another.

   • Global identity: A sense of connection to people from around the world, often facilitated by digital communication, even without direct interaction.

   • These identities can merge, forming a bicultural identity, which blends elements of both local and global identities.

   • However, this merging can also lead to identity confusion, where conflicting cultural expectations create psychological discomfort.

3. Impact on Collectivist Cultures:

   • In collectivist cultures (valuing social harmony and conformity), the clash with global identity (which tends to emphasize individualism and self-expression) can be particularly challenging.

   • This can result in delocalisation, where an individual strongly identifies with a global culture but struggles to relate to their local society.

4. Mental Health and Cultural Impact:

   • Hikikomori: A mental health phenomenon in Japan, particularly among young men, where individuals withdraw from society, influenced by globalisation.

   • Changes in body image: Globalisation, through media (especially TV), promotes a specific ideal body type (thin, young, white). This can lead to the internalisation of body norms, potentially causing eating disorders and negative body image. This often conflicts with local cultural body norms.

Globalisation - Evaluation

Strengths:

• Relevance: Addresses the growing impact of globalization, especially with digital communication and travel.

• Comprehensive: Explores cultural shifts, identity confusion, and mental health issues like hikikomori.

• Cultural Sensitivity: Recognizes challenges faced by collectivist cultures when exposed to individualistic global values.

• Mental Health Focus: Highlights how globalization can affect mental health, particularly in youth.

Limitations:

• Negative Bias: Focuses more on the negative effects of globalization, without addressing positive outcomes.

• Lack of Empirical Evidence: Does not provide strong research support for claims like the link between globalization and hikikomori.

• Cultural Bias: Overemphasis on Japan and body image may not apply universally across cultures.

• Identity Complexity: The theory oversimplifies the process of identity formation, which is more complex.

Globalisation - Ogihara and Uchida (2014) 1

Aim:

• Investigate how changes in cultural values influence the subjective well-being of young Japanese individuals, particularly in relation to hikikomori (social withdrawal).

Method:

• Participants: 195 Japanese university students.

• Design: Correlational study.

• Procedure:

  • Participants were assessed for the risk of hikikomori using a standardized test.

  • A test was administered to measure attitudes towards social harmony and social conformity at three levels: current self, ideal self, and perceptions of Japanese society.

  • Participants also completed a test to measure their local identity (emphasizing social harmony and collectivism) and global identity (emphasizing individualism and achievement).

Results:

• Both high-risk and low-risk groups agreed on the value of social harmony and conformity in Japanese society.

• High-risk students, however, valued social harmony less in their ideal self than in their current self and the society's expectations.

• High-risk students had lower scores on both local and global identity compared to low-risk students.

Conclusion:

• The study suggests that many young Japanese individuals, especially those at risk for hikikomori, feel alienated by the pressures of local culture, which emphasizes social harmony and conformity. These individuals may not identify with the globalized culture either, leading to withdrawal from society.

4o mini

Globalisation - Ogihara and Uchida (2014) 1 - Evaluation

• Generalizability:

  • Strength: Large sample of 195 Japanese university students.

  • Limitation: Limited to university students, not representative of all Japanese youth.

• Reliability:

  • Strength: Standardized tests ensure consistency.

  • Limitation: Self-reported data may introduce bias.

• Applications:

  • Strength: Insights useful for mental health interventions for hikikomori.

  • Limitation: Results may not apply to other cultures.

• Validity:

  • Strength: Multiple measures strengthen internal validity.

  • Limitation: Correlational design cannot prove causality.

• Ethics:

  • Strength: No harmful procedures; informed consent obtained.

  • Limitation: Sensitive topic could affect participant well-being.

Globalisation - Becker et al (2002) 2

Aim:

• to investigate the changing attidues to body image among fijian school girls as a result of the introduction of televison

Method:

• 60 fijian school girls some in 1995 and some in 1998 (before and after TV was intorduced)

• in 1995 particpents were given the EAT-26 to establish eating habits, with a follow up interview to confirm the results

• in 1998 this was repeated with the other cohort, with additional questions about weight and body image

Results:

• Avreage score for EAT-26 went from 13% to 29% (where >20% is correlated with dieting and self induced vomiting )

• 77% of girls said that TV made them think diffrently about their body and there was a genral lack of understaning of TV editing, many of the paricpents said they wanted to look nice like the people on TV

Conclusion:

• the introduction of TV in Fiji lead to sociotal norms being internalised, leading to an increase in the prevalance of eating disorders such as AN

Globalisation - Becker et al (2002) 2 - Evaluation

• Generalizability:

  • Strength: Focus on Fijian school girls, a unique and culturally distinct population.

  • Limitation: Limited sample size (60 participants) and the study's focus on one cultural group may not apply to other cultures.

• Reliability:

  • Strength: Standardized measures (EAT-26) used for consistent assessment.

  • Limitation: Self-reported data may introduce response biases, particularly regarding body image.

• Applications:

  • Strength: Highlights the impact of media exposure on body image, important for prevention strategies in countries with increasing media access.

  • Limitation: Results may not fully generalize to cultures with different media influences or historical contexts.

• Validity:

  • Strength: Study compares pre- and post-TV introduction data, strengthening internal validity.

  • Limitation: The correlational nature of the study makes it difficult to establish causality between TV introduction and eating disorders.

• Ethics:

  • Strength: Ethical considerations in obtaining informed consent.

  • Limitation: Sensitive nature of body image and eating disorders may cause psychological distress for participants.