AP Psych Unit 3: Development and Learning

accommodation

In the context of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas (mental structures) or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences.

acquisition

the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened through reinforcement.

adolescence

the transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the teenage years, marked by puberty, identity exploration, and increased autonomy.

aggression

behavior that is intended to cause harm or injury to another person or object.

Albert Bandura

a psychologist known for his contributions to social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy; conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated observational learning and the influence of role models on behavior.

Alfred Kinsey

a biologist and sexologist known for his pioneering research on human sexuality; provided extensive data on sexual behavior in American men and women.

Alice Eagly

a psychologist known for her research on gender roles and social psychology. She has contributed to the understanding of gender stereotypes and the role of socialization in shaping behavior.

androgyny

the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics or qualities in an individual, challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes.

antisocial behavior

actions that violate social norms, disregard the rights of others, and often involve aggression, deceit, or rule-breaking.

aphasia

a language disorder caused by damage to the brain, typically resulting in difficulty with language production, comprehension, or both.

asexual

a lack of sexual attraction to others or a lack of interest in sexual activity.

assimilation

the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing cognitive schemas or mental structures.

associative learning

a type of learning that involves forming associations or connections between stimuli and responses, such as classical and operant conditioning.

attachment

the emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically characterized by proximity seeking, distress upon separation, and a sense of security.

B. F. Skinner

a psychologist known for his work in behaviorism and operant conditioning; developed the operant chamber, a controlled environment for studying behavior, and introduced concepts such as reinforcement and schedules of reinforcement.

babbling stage

a developmental milestone in infancy when infants produce repetitive, nonsensical sounds as they experiment with vocalizations.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory, the sense of security and confidence in the world that develops during infancy through consistent and nurturing caregiving.

behaviorism

a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior, while often disregarding internal mental processes.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

a linguist known for his hypothesis of linguistic relativity, which suggests that the structure of language influences the way individuals perceive and think about the world.

Broca's area

a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for speech production and language processing.

Carl Wernicke

a neurologist known for identifying Wernicke's area, a brain region associated with language comprehension and processing.

Carol Gilligan

a psychologist known for her work on gender and moral development.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

cognition

mental processes such as perception, thinking, memory, and problem-solving

cognitive map

a mental representation of one's spatial environment, including landmarks, routes, and relationships between locations

cognitive learning

learning that involves mental processes such as attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving, as opposed to purely behavioral responses

concrete operational stage

In Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the third stage, occurring from about 7 to 11 years old, characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete events and grasp concrete analogies.

conditioned reinforcer

a previously neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing through its association with a primary reinforcer.

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus, acquired through classical conditioning

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

conservation

the understanding that certain properties of objects, such as quantity, volume, or number, remain constant despite changes in their physical appearance.

continuous reinforcement schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which every occurrence of the desired behavior is reinforced

critical period

a developmental stage during which an organism is particularly sensitive to environmental influences and experiences, which are necessary for the normal development of certain abilities or behaviors

cross-sectional study

a research method that compares individuals of different ages or developmental stages at a single point in time to examine age-related differences

developmental psychology

the branch of psychology that studies the physical, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout the lifespan, from infancy to old age

Diana Baumrind

a psychologist known for her research on parenting styles. She identified three main parenting styles - authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive.

discrimination

the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli, or to treat individuals or groups differently based on prejudiced beliefs or attitudes

discriminative stimulus

a cue or signal that indicates the presence of reinforcement for a particular behavior

ecological systems theory

proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory emphasizes the influence of various environmental systems (such as family, school, community) on individual development

Edward C. Tolman

a psychologist known for his research on cognitive maps and latent learning, which demonstrated that learning can occur without reinforcement and may not be immediately evident in behavior.

Edward L. Thorndike

a psychologist known for his research on animal learning and the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

egocentrism

the inability to take another person's perspective or understand that others may have different thoughts, feelings, or beliefs.

emerging adulthood

a developmental stage proposed by Jeffrey Arnett, characterized by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and possibilities, typically occurring in the late teens and early twenties.

Erik Erikson

a psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development, which describes eight stages of development spanning from infancy to old age, each characterized by a unique psychosocial crisis or challenge.

estrogen

a hormone primarily associated with the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and the regulation of the menstrual cycle.

extinction

the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

fetal alcohol syndrome

a group of physical and mental birth defects that occur in children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy.

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which the first response is rewarded only after a specified time interval has elapsed.

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.

formal operational stage

In Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the fourth stage, occurring from about age 12 through adulthood, characterized by the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and engage in hypothetical thinking.

gender

the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities associated with being male or female, which can vary across different cultures and societies.

gender identity

an individual's personal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned to them at birth.

gender role

the set of societal expectations, norms, and behaviors that are typically associated with being male or female in a particular culture or society.

gender typing

the process by which individuals acquire behaviors, preferences, and roles that are typically associated with their gender, often through socialization and reinforcement.

generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a conditioned stimulus, even if they have not been explicitly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

grammar

the set of rules and principles that govern the structure, composition, and use of language, including syntax, morphology, and semantics.

habituation

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged exposure, reflecting a form of learning in which the stimulus becomes less novel or salient over time.

Harry Harlow

a psychologist known for his research on attachment and social isolation in rhesus monkeys, particularly his experiments with surrogate mothers made of wire or cloth.

higher-order conditioning

a form of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, leading the new stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

identity

the distinct characteristics, beliefs, values, and experiences that define an individual's sense of self and contribute to their understanding of who they are.

imprinting

a form of rapid and irreversible learning that occurs during a critical period, typically in young animals, in which they form strong attachments to a specific individual or object.

insecure attachment

a pattern of attachment behavior characterized by anxiety, avoidance, or ambivalence in the relationship between an infant and their caregiver.

instinctive drift

the tendency of animals to revert to innate, instinctual behaviors that interfere with operant conditioning, despite training to the contrary.

intersex

a term used to describe individuals born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female.

intimacy

a close, interpersonal connection characterized by emotional closeness, trust, and vulnerability.

Ivan Pavlov

a Russian physiologist known for his research on classical conditioning, particularly his experiments with dogs, which demonstrated the conditioning of involuntary responses such as salivation.

Jean Piaget

a Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, which describes how children actively construct their understanding of the world through a series of developmental stages.

John B. Watson

an American psychologist known as the founder of behaviorism and for his famous Little Albert experiment, which demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.

John Garcia

a psychologist known for his research on taste aversion learning, which showed that animals are more likely to associate illness with tastes that are novel or unusual.

Konrad Lorenz

an Austrian ethologist known for his research on imprinting and animal behavior, particularly with geese and ducks.

language

a system of communication consisting of symbols, such as words and gestures, that convey meaning and allow for the expression of thoughts, ideas, and emotions.

latent learning

a form of learning that occurs without reinforcement and may not be immediately evident in behavior, but becomes apparent when there is an incentive or motivation to demonstrate it.

law of effect

proposed by Edward L. Thorndike, this states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

learning

the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, behaviors, or attitudes through experience, instruction, or observation.

Lev Vygotsky

a Soviet psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development, which emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in shaping cognitive growth.

linguistic determinism

the hypothesis that the structure of language influences or determines the way individuals perceive and think about the world.

linguistic relativism

the idea that differences in language structure or vocabulary can lead to differences in thought and perception across cultures.

longitudinal study

a research method that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period of time to examine developmental changes and continuity across the lifespan.

Margaret Harlow

a psychologist known for her research on attachment and maternal deprivation, conducted in collaboration with her husband, Harry.

Mary Ainsworth

a psychologist known for her research on attachment theory and the development of the 'Strange Situation' procedure to assess attachment styles in infants.

maturation

the biologically programmed process of growth and development that unfolds over time, leading to changes in physical, cognitive, and social functioning.

menarche

the first occurrence of menstruation in females, typically occurring during puberty.

menopause

the natural cessation of menstruation and reproductive function in females, typically occurring around middle age.

mirror neurons

neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action, suggesting a role in empathy, imitation, and social learning.

modeling

a form of observational learning in which individuals learn by observing and imitating the behaviors of others.

morpheme

the smallest unit of language that carries meaning, such as words, prefixes, suffixes, or grammatical markers.

negative reinforcement

the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus, which increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that initially does not elicit a response, but can become a conditioned stimulus through association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Noam Chomsky

a linguist, philosopher, and cognitive scientist known for his theories of generative grammar and universal grammar, which propose innate linguistic structures and rules underlying all human languages.

observational learning

a form of learning in which individuals acquire new behaviors or information by observing and imitating others, without direct reinforcement.

one-word stage

The one-word stage, also known as the holophrastic stage, is a developmental stage in language acquisition during which children typically use single words to convey entire meanings or concepts.

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences, which in turn affect the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future.

operant chamber

also known as a Skinner box, a controlled environment used in operant conditioning experiments to study animal behavior, typically equipped with levers or buttons for the animal to press in order to receive reinforcement.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it, such as reinforcement or punishment.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which only some occurrences of the desired behavior are reinforced, leading to slower extinction but greater resistance to extinction over time.

Paul Broca

a French neurologist known for his discovery of Broca's area in the brain, which is associated with language production and speech.

phoneme

the smallest distinctive sound unit in a language, which can differentiate words and change their meanings.

positive reinforcement

the presentation of a desirable stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future.

preoperational stage

In Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the second stage, occurring from about 2 to 7 years old, characterized by symbolic thought, egocentrism, and the use of language and imagination.

preparedness

the biological predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others due to their relevance to survival or evolutionary significance.