What are historians' views on the causes of the First World War?

Fritz Fischer → Germany is primarily at fault for the outbreak of WW1

• Fischer was a former Nazi (not during WW2, he renounced his membership) and the first historian to examine the entire archives from Kaiser Wilhelm II’s government

• Published a thesis (The Fischer Thesis) in the 1960s that used these archives as sources for why Germany was solely responsible for WW1

• Believes Germany were overconfident enough to willingly risk conflict with Russia and France

• Also argues Germany “willed” and supported the Austro-Serbian war, which further “proves” their blame.

• Emphasises long-standing German militarism from the 1890s, desires for material and territorial gain and rivalry with Russia

Christopher Clark → All belligerents were paranoid and no single country can bear the responsibility of the war

• Arguing against Fischer by stating that all policy-makers were currently “succumbing to paranoia.” The July Crisis was created by “a shared political culture”. Famous quote: “The First World War was the most complex event of modern times.”

James Joll → Long-term factors (nationalism, militarism, imperialism and rivalries/alliances) impacted the July Crisis

• By this point, these factors pressured the statesmen into war, believes they did not have a choice.

• War was inevitable by the time of the July Crisis.

Margaret MacMillan → All countries involved could have chosen not to go to war, but were shortsighted and cowardly

• Believes they were not able to realise how destructive this conflict would be, and that they should have stood up against those who demanded war.

• “There are always choices”.

John Keegan → WW1 was caused not due to one country desiring war, but rather a failure of communication

• Argues The Kaiser realised he was not in control and panicked, which is what led to the Blank Cheque.

• Does not believe in any arrogant and violent ulterior motives. Miscommunication of aims.

Marxist School of Thought (Vladimir Lenin, Neil Faulkner, Eric Hobsbawm) → WW1 was caused by capitalist economic forces

• They saw imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism because they were seeking profit through stealing new markets and materials forcefully.

• Capitalistic competition through imperialism created the alliance system.

• As these were long-term causes for the war, capitalism was to blame. WW1 = Capitalist imperialist war.

• Already during the war Lenin was writing about how it had been inevitable and predictable

• Hobsbawm argued the rapid industrialisation of the late 1800s increased consumption and standards of living, which also increased demand, competition and insecurity → key ingredients in building up tensions for war

Historians to counter against each other for causes of WW1

General WW1 Historiography to use in your essays

• World War 1 is considered one of the most studied events in human history

  • Began just a couple weeks into the war and is still continuing

• Types of historians:

  • Political historians: research and theorise about causes and effects

  • Military historians: examine strategies, tactics, methodologies and the fronts of war (practices)

  • Social historians: investigate the effect on civilians, social roles, values and attitudes

  • Economic historians: how the war affected government policy, national economies, personal wealth, trade, commerce and finance

• Schools of thought

  • The early intentionalists

    • Began after the 1918 armistice, primarily consisted of historians in Allied nations

    • Sought to establish causes and blame for the war

      • Believe the war was started by specific leaders and governments who had deliberate and hostile intent

      • Often affected by nationalistic bias

    • Usually held Germany and Kaiser Wilhelm II accountable

      • Believed they spurred the Austro-Hungarian and Serbian war

      • German militarism pinpointed

    • Examples of historians

      • Fritz Fischer

      • French historian Pierre Renouvin

        • First anti-German historian from 1925

        • Held Germany almost entirely responsible

  • German perspectives

    • German historians (especially contemporary ones) wanted to counter the early intentionalists and defend their country

    • Created by the Weimar Republic when they established a branch of the Foreign Ministry called ‘The War Guilt Section’ intended to demonstrate that Germany were not responsible for the war

      • Thus, this school of thought is nationalistically biassed and politically motivated as well

      • The agents of this branch were instructed to exclude sources that exposed German belligerence

    • Examples of historians:

      • Harry Elmer Barnes

        • American and originally anti-Germany until he began arguing against US involvement and was funded by the War Guilt Section

        • Argued France and Russia were the two nations most liable for the outbreak

        • Claimed Austria-Hungary were only acting to preserve its empire and Germany only played a supporting role

Said Germany had numerous opportunities to start war prior to July, had that been their intention

• Hermann Lutz

  • Sponsored by the War Guilt Section

  • Blamed Britain for the outbreak, especially British foreign minister Sir Edward Grey who he believed significantly provoked war by interfering in other countries in 1914

  • The structuralists

    • Moving away from blaming specific countries/governments, focusing on complex web of factors

      • Such as militarism, alliances, nationalism

    • Examples of historians:

      • Sidney Fay

        • American historian

        • Believes the Central Powers were more responsible for the war, but that Germany alone cannot receive all the blame

“The Kaiser’s role in the July Crisis had been drastically overstated”

More so Austria-Hungary, Russia and Serbia

• Arguably all the mains listed above apart from Fritz Fischer

Sources!

• Morris and Murphy

• Palmer and Kramer

• Alpha History (though this is slightly biassed against Germany)