Social Psychology- Chapters 5 & 6: Racism, Attitudes & Persuasion, Cognitive Dissonance, Sexism, & Stereotyping

What are the ABCs of group perception?

A (Affect)--> Prejudice: feelings toward a group

B (Behavior)--> Discrimination: actions toward a group

C (Cognition)--> Stereotypes: beliefs about a group

Example:

Thinking women are "emotional" --> stereotype (C)

Disliking women --> prejudice (A)

Not hiring women --> discrimination (B)

What is a stereotype?

A generalized belief that associates a group with certain traits. It is a cognitive shortcut (schema) stored in memory.

Example: Assuming elderly people are bad drivers.

Why is stereotyping considered part of social cognition rather than just categorization?

Because, unlike objects, stereotypes involve people, which introduces:

Bias, emotions, and social consequences.

Key point: Misjudging people has real-world impacts, unlike miscategorizing objects

How does spreading activation relate to stereotypes?

When one concept is activated, related ideas automatically activate in memory.

Example: Hearing "fast food" --> activates "unhealthy," "lazy," "American" --> This is how stereotypes quickly come to mind.

Why are stereotypes cognitively efficient?

They allow us to process information quickly without thinking deeply.

Downside: They sacrifice accuracy for speed, leading to bias.

What is a prejudice?

A positive or negative emotional evaluation of a group.

Example: Feeling uncomfortable around a certain racial group.

What is discrimination?

Behavior directed toward people based on group membership.

Example: Refusing to rent an apartment to someone because of their race.

What is social categorization?

The process of classifying people into groups to simplify social perception.

Why it exists: Helps us process information quickly.

Problem: Leads to oversimplification and bias.

Example: Categorizing someone as an "athlete," "nerd," or "rich."

What are ingroups and outgroups?

Ingroup: groups you identify with ("us")

Outgroups: groups you don't belong to ("them")

Example: Howard students (ingroup) vs. other schools (outgroups)

What is ingroup bias?

The tendency to favor your own group over others

Example: Thinking people from your school are smarter.

What is the outgroup homogeneity effect (OHE)?

The belief that outgroup members are all the same, while ingroup members are diverse.

Example: "All athletes act the same" vs. "people in my friend group are unique.")

What problem arises because we are both ingroup and outgroup members?

Our perceptions are biased depending on context, meaning:

We favor "us"

We oversimplify "them"

What are stereotypes as schemas?

Stereotypes function like mental frameworks that:

Direct attention

Influence memory

Shape interpretation

Example: Interpreting a "CEO" as male by default.

What was the key takeaway from the "CEO vs. drug dealer" sentence example?

Stereotypes influence how we interpret ambiguous behavior.

Example:

CEO "terminated an employee" --> seen as professional

Drug dealer "terminated someone" --> seen as violent

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

When expectations about a person influence behavior, causing the expectation to come true.

Cycle: Expectation --> Behavior toward a person --> Their response --> Confirms belief

Example: Teacher thinks a student is unintelligent --> gives less attention --> student performs poorly --> belief is confirmed.

What did Word, Zanna, & Cooper (1974) demonstrate?

White interviewers treated Black candidates worse (sat farther, had speech errors, shorter interviews).

Created an uncomfortable environment and this caused poorer performance.

Conclusion: Stereotypes create the behavior they expect.

Why is the self-fulfilling prophecy especially dangerous?

Because it creates "evidence" that stereotypes are true, even when they are not.

What is confirmatory bias?

The tendency to focus on information that supports stereotypes and ignore contradictions.

Example: If you think someone is aggressive, you only notice moments when they are angry.

What is subtyping?

Creating a subcategory for people who don't fit a stereotype, instead of changing the stereotype.

Example: "Women aren't athletic...except for female athletes." --> stereotype stays intact.

What is priming?

Activation of certain ideas in memory that influence perception unconsciously.

Example: Seeing words like "ghetto" --> later judging someone as more hostile.

What are the characteristics of automatic processing in priming?

Unconscious, unintentional, effortless

Why is the Devine (1989) study important?

It shows that even non-prejudiced people can act in biased ways automatically, separating: cultural stereotypes and personal beliefs.

Key Takeaway: Stereotypes can be automatic, even if you don't consciously agree with them.

How can people reduce automatic stereotyping?

Intentionally thinking counter-stereotypically

Taking others' perspectives

Focusing on individual traits, not group identity

Having the motivation to be fair

What is sexism?

Prejudice and discrimination based on gender, including societal systems that favor one gender over another.

What is objectification?

Treating someone (often women) as an object or body, not a full human being.

Example: Valuing a woman only for her appearance.

What is hostile sexism?

Overtly negative attitudes toward women, especially when they challenge male power.

Example: Saying women shouldn't be leaders.

What real-world evidence shows hostile sexism toward female leaders?

Female politicians receive higher rates of abuse online, despite being underrepresented.

What was significant about the Kamala Harris example?

She received 78% of gender/sexually abusive posts in a dataset.

Takeaway: Women in power face disproportionate hostility.

What is benevolent sexism?

Seemingly positive but patronizing beliefs that reinforce inequality.

Example: "Women should be protected by men." --> sounds kind, but implies weakness.

What does the plane crash survival example suggest about benevolent sexism?

Social norms (e.g., "protect women") can influence behavior, sometimes benefiting women, but still reinforcing inequality.

What is ambivalent sexism?

The combination of hostile + benevolent sexism.

Key Idea: People can both admire and resent women simultaneously.

Why is ambivalent sexism psychologically powerful?

Because it mixes reward and punishment, making inequality harder to challenge.

Example: Women are praised when conforming, criticized when not.

What is implicit sexism?

Unconscious gender bias that influences behavior.

Example: Recommendation letters for women containing subtle doubts.

Why is benevolent sexism harmful?

Reinforces gender inequality

Encourages women to be dependent

Limits opportunities

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex: biological classification

Gender: social and cultural identity

What is racism?

Prejudice, discrimination, and systemic inequality based on race.

What is institutional racism?

Policies and systems that produce unequal outcomes, even without individual intent.

Example: Unequal school funding.

What is implicit racism?

Unconscious racial bias that affects judgments and actions, such as hiring, policing, and education.

Operates without awareness

How are racism and stereotyping connected?

Stereotypes provide the cognitive foundation, while prejudice and discrimination are the emotional and behavioral outcomes.

What are attitudes?

Evaluations (positive or negative) about people, objects, or ideas.

What are the components of attitudes?

Cognitive (beliefs)

Affective (feelings)

Behavioral (actions)

What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)?

A theory explaining how persuasion works through two routes: the central route and the peripheral route.

What is the central route to persuasion?

Careful, thoughtful processing of information

Leads to stronger attitudes, resistance to change, and long-term impact

Example: Evaluating strong arguments in a debate --> leads to long-lasting attitude change.

What is the peripheral route to persuasion?

Using surface-level cues (attractiveness, emotional appeal, credibility).

Example: Buying something because a celebrity promotes it --> leads to a temporary change.

What determines whether someone uses the central vs. the peripheral route?

1. Motivation (do they care?)

2. Ability (can they understand?)

What is cognitive dissonance?

Psychological discomfort caused by inconsistency between beliefs and behavior.

How do people reduce dissonance?

Change behavior

Change beliefs

Add justifications to rationalize

When is cognitive dissonance strongest?

When:

Behavior contradicts important beliefs

There is no clear external justification

What is an example of cognitive dissonance?

Smoking while knowing it's unhealthy --> "I'll quit later" (justification)

What is effort justification?

Valuing something more because you worked hard for it.

Example: Loving a club more after a difficult initiation.

What is insufficient justification?

When people change their attitudes because they don't have enough external reasons for their behavior

Example: Being paid $20 to lie --> you convince yourself you believed it.

What is induced compliance?

Changing beliefs after being persuaded to act against them.

What is conformity?

The tendency to change your perceptions, opinions, or behaviors to align with group norms.

Example: Agreeing with a group's opinion even when you privately disagree.

What is social influence?

The effect that others have on an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

What are the three major types of social influence?

Conformity, compliance, and obedience

What does the social influence spectrum include

Independence

Assertiveness

Defiance

Conformity

Compliance

Obedience

What is the Social Impact Theory?

A theory stating that the impact of others depends on strength, immediacy, and number

What is "strength" in the Social Impact Theory?

The importance of the influencing group (status, power, relationship)

Example: A professor has more influence than a stranger.

What is "immediacy" in the Social Impact Theory?

How close the influencing group is (physically or psychologically)

Example: People in the same room influence you more than people online.

What is "number" in the Social Impact Theory?

The number of people influencing you

Example: Influence increases with size but eventually levels off

What is informational influence?

Conformity that occurs because a person believes others are correct

What type of conformity results from informational influence?

Private conformity (you truly change your beliefs)

When is informational influence most effective?

In ambiguous or unclear situations

What is normative influence?

Conformity driven by the desire to avoid rejection or social disapproval

What type of conformity results from normative influence?

Public conformity (outward agreement, private disagreement)

How does group size affect conformity?

Conformity increases as group size increases, then levels off

How does having an ally affect conformity?

Even one dissenter (nonconformist) greatly reduces conformity

How do financial incentives affect conformity?

Higher stakes --> less conformity

How does awareness of norms affect conformity?

Clear norms --> more conformity

Do personality and culture strongly affect conformity?

They have small effects compared to situational factors

Can minorities influence the majority?

Yes, especially under certain conditions

What is the most important factor for minority influence?

Consistency (Moscovici)

Why does consistency increase minority influence?

Signals confidence

Draws attention

Suggests correctness

What other factors increase minority influence?

Being liked

Not threatening the group

What are idiosyncrasy credits?

"Social credits" earned by conforming first, then used to deviate later

Example: A respected group member can disagree without being rejected

Why is minority dissent important?

Encourages deeper thinking

Increases creativity

Leads to lasting change

What did the Sommers (2006) jury study find?

Diverse groups:

Discussed more facts

Made fewer errors

Had better decisions

What is compliance?

Changing behavior in response to a direct request

Difference between conformity and compliance?

Conformity = group pressure

Compliance = direct request

What did Langer (1975) find about compliance?

People comply more when given a reason- even a meaningless one

What is the reciprocity norm?

The expectation that people should return favors

What is pre-giving?

Giving something first to increase compliance

Example: Free address labels increase donation rates

What are sequential request strategies?

Techniques that use multiple steps to increase compliance

What is the door-in-the-face technique

Large request --> refusal --> smaller request (compromise)

What is the "that's not all" technique

Adding bonuses before a decision is made creates a sense of concession (compromise)

What is low-balling?

Getting agreement, then increasing the cost, makes people feel committed and want to stay consistent

How does attractiveness affect compliance?

People are more likely to say yes to attractive individuals

How does similarity affect compliance?

People comply more with those similar to them

How does scarcity affect compliance?

Limited availability increases perceived value

How are conformity and compliance different in real life?

Conformity --> following group norms

Compliance --> responding to a request