agression ao3

neural mechanisms in aggression

-other brain structures such as the orbitofrontal cortex, play a significant role in regulating aggressive behaviour so explanations involving only the limbic system are reductionist

+drugs that increase serotonin have been found to reduce aggression (Berman et al.)

-links between neural factors and aggression may be indirect (correlational studies) and influenced by social and environmental factors.

-Berman et al.

• gave participants paroxetine (increases serotonin) or a placebo

• observed during a competitive lab based game which involved giving/ receiving shocks

• experimental group consistently gave fewer and less intense shocks (measure of aggression).

• shows a causal link between serotonin and aggression

hormonal mechanisms in aggression

+animal studies show that high levels of testosterone are linked to aggression

-dual hormone hypothesis explains why there is mixed evidence surrounding the link between testosterone and aggression

-animal studies make up a large portion of research into aggression. can’t generalise findings as human aggression is more complex due to cognitive factors (dual hormone hypothesis only applies to humans showing human aggression is different to animal aggression)

+Giammanco et al.

animal studies meta analysis

• rhesus macaque monkeys show higher levels of aggression during mating season when testosterone is high

• castration of male rats leads to lowered levels of aggression (lower mouse killing behaviour)

• injecting testosterone into female rats leads to an increase in mouse killing behaviours

• supports the link between testosterone levels and aggression

-dual-hormone hypothesis

• high levels of testosterone only leads to heightened levels of aggression when cortisol levels are low

• when cortisol is high testosterone effects are blocked

• the combined activity is a better predictor of aggressive behaviour than either hormone alone

genetic factors in aggression

+research support for MAOA gene

• Lea and Chambers

• Mertins

• Brunner

• supports the relationship between the MAOA gene and aggression

+research support for GxE interactions

• Frazzetto

-link between MAOA gene and serotonin is unclear

• low activity MAO-A enzyme should lead to high levels of serotonin

• shows the relationship isn’t properly understood

-issues with twin studies

• lack validity due to the equal environments assumption

• D/Z twins are not treated as similarly as M/Z twins are

• concordance rates overstate the affect of genetics on aggression

+Lea and Chambers

• found that a higher proportion of maori men (historically known to be aggressive) had the low activity variant of the MAOA gene than Caucasian men

+Mertins et al.

• found that men with the high activity gene were less aggressive and more cooperative in a money distribution game

• Mertins’ study showed that social factors also played a role in aggressive behaviour

• MAOA-L ppts were less aggressive when they knew others were giving away money

• social factors overrode the genetic factors

+Brunner et al.

• conducted a study on a Dutch family with a history of violent behavior (convicted of aggressive crimes)

• all had MAOA-L variant

• supports the genetic basis for aggression.

+frazzetto et al.

• found that men with the low activity variant of the MAOA gene only displayed higher levels of aggression if they had experienced early trauma

• evidence for diathesis stress model

• suggests MAOA-L variant being the only influence causing aggression is reductionist/deterministic

ethological explanation of aggression

+research support

• any study related to genetics (e.g. brunner) supports ethological as anything with a genetic basis points towards it being innate, adaptive and heritable

• tinberg= evidence for FAPs

-aggression differs in different cultures

• nisbett

• shows culture and social expectations can override innate predispositions

-ritualistic aggression is not the only type of aggression displayed between members of the same species

• goodall

-fixed action potentials are not always fixed

• FAPs are influenced by learning experiences and environmental factors

• duration of behaviours in a FAP sequence varies between individuals and also between experiences of the same individual

• shows FAP are more flexible than lorenz proposed

-biological reductionism

• ignores cognitive and social factors placing all emphasis on biological influences

-nisbett

• found that murders that occurred as a result of reactive aggression were much more common in the Southern United States compared to the North

• this is because theirs is a “culture of honor”

• shows learnt social norms can influence types and prevalence of aggressive behaviours

-Goodall et al.

• observed the “four year war” between two communities of chimpanzees where one group of males killed all of the ones in the other group.

• attacks continued despite appeasement signals

• suggests that same-species aggression is not as self-limiting as it is thought to be

+tinberg et al.

• studied male sticklebacks which are very territorial during mating season

• sign stimulus- red spot on underbelly

• FAP- aggressive attack

• males always displayed FAPs towards models with red underbellies regardless of shape

• males never displayed FAPs if the model lacked the red spot regardless of how realistic it looked.

evolutionary explanations of aggression

+gender differences

• evolutionary explanation explains for females with offspring it is beneficial to use verbal aggression to retain a partner rather than physical aggression which could put her and her offspring at risk

• Conversely, males may use physical aggression to establish dominance and acquire resources, improving reproductive success so the trait is selected for

• has good face validity

-cultural differences

• in the community of the !kung san people aggressive behaviour is extremely rare as it is frowned upon and discouraged in children of both genders from an early age

• anyone who uses aggression has their power and status removed

• cultural and societal norms constrain aggressive behaviour showing behaviour couldn’t be adaptive otherwise it would be general to all communities regardless of social factors

+other studies have contradicted these findings

• the !kung san people have an unexpectedly high homicide rate for such peaceful people

• contradictions in findings may be due to the bias of observers (culture bias) so results lack validity

+real world application

• can be used to reduce bullying

• Ellis et al.

-biological determinism

• evolutionary approach says that aggression is a result of natural selection and years of evolution, it is innate and inevitable

• takes away the role of free will and the cognitive factors involved in human aggression.

+ellis et al.

• suggested an alternative anti bullying programme

• based on the idea that bullying is adaptive

• increases costs of bullying and encourages prosocial behaviour

• e.g. giving bullies roles and responsibilities to act as a source if status

• real world application makes it valuable and effective in reducing aggressive behavior in schools.

frustrations-aggression hypothesis

+research support

• marcus-newhall et al. meta analysis

• supports the existence of displaced anger

-aggression isn’t always cathartic

• Bushman

• invalidates the idea that venting aggression reduces it

-frustration-aggression link is complex

• frustration does not always lead to aggression and aggression is not always the result of frustration

• the hypothesis is an inadequate explanation for many situations where aggression occurs

+negative affect theory

• takes into account that frustration and aggression do not always have a causal link

• highlights that aggression can arise from many different negative emotions not just frustration

+marcus-newhall et al.

• meta analysis of research into displaced anger

• frustrated ppts were more likely to show aggression towards an innocent third party when they couldn’t aggress against the source of their aggression

-Bushman

• ppts who vented their anger by hitting a punch bag were more aggressive afterwards

• doing nothing was more effective at reducing anger

+negative affect hypothesis

• frustration is one of many stimuli that can lead to negative feelings

• other stimuli include loneliness jealousy and pain

• aggression can be triggered by any of these negative affects (feelings)

• frustration can lead to one of many responses (e.g. anxious or determined)

social learning theory

+research support

• poulin and boivin

• support for modelling and vicarious learning leading to aggression

+real world application

• can be used to reduce aggression in children

• provide rewards for non-aggressive models

• practical application makes it valuable

-underestimates biological factors

• recognised the innate instinct to be aggressive but believed that aggressive actions are learnt

• disregards hormonal,neural and genetic mechanisms

• reductionist

-lab studies

• banduras studies were all in a highly controlled environment so that they could find a causal relationship

• the studies lack mundane realism and ecological validity, limiting their generalizability to real-world situations.

poulin and boivin

• aggressive boys befriended each other

• mutual reinforcement through modelling increased aggressive behaviours

• observed peers using aggression to acquire a reward

• received approval from other boys

deindividuation

+research support

• douglas and mcgarty

• shows the kink between deindividuation and aggression

-deindividuation does not always lead to aggression

• gergen et al

• deindividuation does not always lead to aggression

+real world examples of deindividuation

• shows that the idea that crowds lead to deindividuation has validity

-deindividuation is normative not anti-normative

• deindividuation supposedly leads to antisocial behaviours (disinhibited aggression)

• SIDE model argues tat deindividuated behaviour is behaviour that conforms to group norms

• the norms are antisocial but it is the same process as for prosocial norms

• anonymity switches an individuals focus to the social identity of the group instead of their individual identity

• people in a deindividuated state remain sensitive to the norms of groups and dont ignore them as the theory suggests

douglas and mcgarty

• looked at instances of online aggression

• found that most messages from trolls were from anonymous accounts

• supports the link between aggression and anonymity

gergen et al.

• deviance in the dark study

• ppts placed in a dark room and told they would not be identified and could do whatever they wanted

• ended up kissing

• in a follow up study where ppts were told they would meet each other F2F after instances of intimate acts dropped significantly

• this shows anonymity doesn’t always lead to aggression

Mann

• investigated cases of suicidal jumpers where crowds had encouraged the person to jump

• found that conditions were often ones that promoted deindividuation (dark/large crowds)

• gives validity to the idea that deindividuation occurs in faceless crowds

social identity model of deindividuation (SIDE model)

deindividuation leads to behaviour that conforms to group norms whether that be prosocial or antisocial

dispositional explanation (importation model)

+research support

• delisi

• camp and gaes

-the importation model ignores the role of environmental factors on behaviour

• poor management (characterised by weak leadership, unofficial rules, distanced staff, no access to education) will lead to more aggression

• importation model isn’t adequate because it ignores institutional factors

-deterministic model

• claims that aggression is down to disposition which cant be changed with free will

delisi et al.

• studied juvenile offenders with negative backgrounds (e.g. abuse)

• compared to control group of inmates with no negative background

• found that experimental group were more likely to engage in suicidal activity sexual misconduct and physical aggression

cam and gaes

• studied a large group of inmates with similar criminal histories

• subjects were randomly split into two groups and put into low or high security prisons

• aggressive misconduct levels were almost exactly the same

• shows that individual characteristics were more influential than prison conditions.

situational explanation (deprivation model)

+research support

• cunningham

• supports models validity

-heterosexual contact or lack thereof does not reliably predict aggressive acts

• hensley et al.

• situational factors do not substantially affect prison violence

cunningham

• analysed instances of inmate homicides

• most were related to deprivations identified in the model (e.g. arguments over drugs, sexual contact, personal possession)

hensley

• studied male and female inmates in prisons that allowed conjugal visits

• there was no link between participation in a conjugal visit and aggression

• the model predicts there will be more aggressive behaviour when there is a lack of heterosecual contact

media influences on aggression

-definitions of aggression vary greatly between studies

• volume of white noise played at an opponent is not comparable to criminal convictions

• not all aggression is violence and not all aggression or violence is criminal

• results of studies depend heavily on the definition of aggression used

• cant compare results form different studies

+meta analyses can overcome the issue of differing definitions of aggression in research studies.

• anderson et al found that exposure to violent video games increased aggressive behaviour in both sexes across all studies regardless of how aggression was defined/measured

-there is a lot of poor quality research on media influences on aggression

• many studies are correlational so cause and effect conclusions are unjustified

• experimental studies lack external validity so can be generalised

• even meta analyses can be affected by faulty studies as they skew results

• some conclusions are based on research that lacks validity meaning that the theories are also not valid or valuable

+findings can be explained by social learning theory

• bobo doll experiment worked even when children observed models on video

• it follows that children will also model other forms of media

• having a unifying explanation is a key feature of science giving it higher validity

desensitisation

+research support

• a study found that people who regularly viewed aggressive media had lower levels of psychological arousal when exposed to violent stimuli, indicating that repeated exposure may numb emotional responses and reduce sensitivity to aggression.

• these regular viewers also gave louder bursts of white noise without being provoked

• supports the principles of desensitisation

-desensitisation cant explain all cases of aggression

• there is no link between lower arousal when viewing aggressive media and provoked aggression

• this can be explained by catharsis

• viewing violent media acts as an outlet for frustration in a safe environment

• this reduces the validity of this explanation

disinhibition

+research support

• ppts who saw media where aggression was used as a form of vengeance administered shocks for longer periods of time to a confederate

• media violence disinhibits aggressive behaviour if it is perceived as just/deserved because then it is considered socially acceptable

• there is a link between a lack of social constraints and aggressive behaviour

+cartoon violwnce’s’ effects can be explained by disinhibition

• children learn that aggression is generally acceptable rather than specific aggressive behaviours (cartoon violence is not a reflection of real life)

• occurs more in situations where the aggressive character isn’t punished which disinhibits aggressive behaviour

cognitive priming

+real world application

• in real life violent situations arise due to the way that people have interpreted environmental cues

• people who watch violent media have more aggressive scripts stored so are more likely to resort to violent solutions without considering alternatives

• suggests that challenging cognitive biases can reduce aggressive behaviours

-confounding variables

• research into the effect of violent video games vs nonviolent video games has found that violent games prime violent behaviour more than nonviolent ones

• however violent games tend to have more complex gameplay and the increase in priming may be due to the more realistic situations presented

• findings that support priming may be due to confounding variables meaning they are not valid