Studied by 58 people
The study of the humans around the world and through time
A holistic science
Traditionally viewed as the study of non-Western, non-Industrial societies and fossils
What is ‘anthropology’?
study of the whole human condition - encompassing past, present and future; biology, society, language and culture.
What does ‘holistic’ mean?
Other Social Sciences focus on a single society
Anthropology focuses on comparing and a cross-cultural perspective. Meaning it looks at customs of one society and compares it with that of another
How is Anthropology different than other Social Sciences?
organized life in groups
Shared by humans; monkeys; apes; wolves; mole rats and ants
What is ‘society’?
the traditions and customs transmitted through learning within a society
These traditions and customs form and guide the behaviour of the people exposed to them
Culture is unique to humans
What is ‘culture’?
the broad study of humankind around the world and throughout time
What is General Anthropology?
Cultural Anthropology
Anthropological Archaeology
Biological Anthropology
Linguistic Anthropology
What are the four sub-disciplines of General Anthropology?
the comparative, cross-cultural study of human society and culture
It describes, analyzes, interprets and explains social and cultural similarities and differences
What is Cultural Anthropology?
Ethnography
Ethnology
What are the two sub-disciplines of Cultural Anthropology?
the fieldwork in a particular study
Looks at a particular group, community or society
Traditionally, ethnographers lived in small communities to study local behaviour, beliefs, customs
Modern ethnographers realize the impact of larger social systems on small communities – like regional, national, global politics, economics and information
What is Ethnography?
is the study of sociocultural differences and similarities by examining the results of the ethnography (the data gathered in the fieldwork)
Uses collected data to generalize about a culture
What is Ethnology?
the study of human behaviour through material means
It reconstructs, describes and interprets human behaviour
Materials looked at - artifacts, things made, used, modified, tools, weapons, campsites, buildings and garbage (consumption and activities)
It helps to determine wild or domestic plants or animals
What is Anthropological Archeology?
fragments of earthenware (clay or ceramic)
They are more durable than other artifacts
They can be indicative of population size, density, trade (use of materials not found locally) Similarities at different sites can show cultural connections – history, ancestors
What are potsherds?
the study of a community or culture by analyzing its waste
Think: the garbology experiment video, analyzing people’s alcohol consumption
What is Garbology?
a scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings, their extinct hominin ancestors, and related non-human primates, particularly from an evolutionary perspective
What is Biological Anthropology?
the study of language and linguistic diversity in time, space and society
What is Linguistic Anthropology?
the study of language in society
Studies linguistic differences based on : historical changes, gender, class and social variances
What is ‘sociolinguistics’?
the use of anthropology to solve contemporary problems
Public health, family planning, business, market research, economic development, public educational programs, historical preservation
What is Applied Anthropology?
deciding what needs saving when entire archaeological sites cannot be saved
What is Cultural Resource Management?
the process by which culture is learned and transmitted across generations
Starting as children we all learn culture, just like primates
As kids, we consciously and unconsciously, internalize and incorporate cultural traditions; directly and indirectly
What is ‘enculturation’?
Cultures are patterned systems. This means if one part of the system changes, then other parts will change too.
How are cultures integrated?
the key, basic or central values that integrate a culture
Ex: In our North American culture, work ethic and individualism are our core values
What are ‘core values’?
members of the hominid family – defined as any fossil or living human, chimp or gorilla
What are ‘hominids’?
hominids excluding the African apes – defined as all the human species that ever existed
What are ‘hominin’?
'Hominin' is a term given to humans and all of our extinct bipedal ancestors – those ancestors who walked upright on two feet. 'Hominid' is the term given to all modern and extinct great apes, including humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans and all their immediate ancestors.
What is the difference between hominin and hominid?
The ability to grasp, manual dexterity (opposable thumbs)
Depth and colour vision
Learning ability based on a large brain
Substantial parental involvement in a limited number of offspring
Tendencies towards sociality and cooperation
What traits do we share with primates?
How we eat
Mating
Exogamy and kinship systems
How do we differ from primates?
something that exists in every culture
Define ‘universal’?
culture pattern or trait that exists in some, but not all, societies
What is ‘generality’?
distinctive, or unique culture trait, pattern or integration; confined to a single place, culture or society
What is ‘particularity’?
Ideal Culture is what people say they should do and what they say they do
Real Culture is what people actually do (their real behaviour)
What is ‘Ideal Culture’ vs ‘Real Culture’?
National Culture – cultural features shared by citizens of the same nation
International Culture – cultural traditions that extend beyond national boundaries
Subcultures – different cultural traditions associated with subgroups in the same complex society
What are the three levels of culture?
the action of judging other cultures based on one’s own cultural standards
Fundamental to anthropology is the fact that what is considered alien to us may be normal, proper and prized elsewhere
What is ‘ethnocentrism’?
the idea that behaviour should be evaluated not by outside standards but in the context of the culture in which it occurs
This is not a moral belief, but a methodological position
What is ‘cultural relativism’?
rights based on justice and morality beyond and superior to any countries, cultures and/or religions
Human rights include the right to speak freely, hold religious beliefs without persecution and not to be murdered, injured, enslaved, or imprisoned without charge
Human rights are inalienable and international
What are ‘human rights’?
rights vested in groups
Examples include: religious and ethnic minorities; indigenous societies
Many countries sign pacts endorsing cultural minorities within the nation
These pacts include pertain to things like self-determination, degree of home rule, right to practice the group’s religion, language, culture
What are ‘cultural rights’?
A cultural right among indigenous groups to control who may know and use their collective knowledge and its applications
Why is this necessary ? Much of the intellectual property has commercial value. For example - ethnomedicine, cosmetics, cultivated plants, foods, etc.
This allows the cultural group to determine how the knowledge/product is used and distributed and the level of compensation required
What are ‘intellectual property rights’, or ‘IPR’?
the borrowing of cultural traits between societies
What is ‘diffusion’?
Direct – when two cultures trade, intermarry or wage war on one another
Indirect – when items move from group A to group C via group B without any firsthand contact between Group A and C
Forced – when one culture subjugates another and imposes its customs on the dominated group
What are the three types of diffusion?
Acculturation – an exchange of cultural features between groups in firsthand contact
Independent Invention – the independent development of a cultural feature in different societies
Globalization – the accelerating interdependence of nations in the world system
What are three mechanisms of cultural change?
Participant Observation – taking part in community life, participating in the events that one is observing, describing and analyzing
Conversations, Interviewing
Genealogical method – the use of diagrams and symbols to record kin connections
Longitudinal research – long-term study, usually based on repeated visits
What are some methods of ethnography?
Native oriented, or ‘enic’: research strategy focusing on local explanations and meanings
Scientist oriented, or ‘etic’: research strategy emphasizing the ethnographers’ explanations and categories
What are two ethnographic perspectives?
the idea of single line or path of cultural development
What is ‘unilinear evolutionism’?
Animism → Polytheism → Monotheism → Science
What was Morgan’s theory of unilinear evolution?
Social Darwinism
Savagery → Barbarism → Civilized
What was Tylor’s theory of unilinear evolution?
the idea that histories are not comparable; diverse paths can lead to the same cultural result
Works found that biology (including race) did not determine cultural achievements
Fought against the previous belief of a pre-ordained evolutionary path
Viewed cultural generalities as a result of independent invention – where individual cultures came up with the same solution to the same/common problem (Example – agriculture was ’invented’ many times throughout the world)
Believed that each culture trait has its own history and that although it looks the same, it is unique because of this history
What is ‘historical particularism’?
an approach that focuses on the role of sociocultural practices in social systems
Famous Anthropologists - Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown
Focused on the present, not history
Saw all customs and institutions integrated and interrelated – when one changes, so does another – they are a function of one another
What is Functionalism?
the view of culture as integrated and patterned
Famous Anthropologists: Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead
This supports that culture, not biology, determine behaviour and personality
What is Configurationalism?
the study of symbols in their social and cultural context
Victor Turner, author of The Forest of Symbols
Symbols used to regulate, anticipate and avoid conflict within a society
What is Symbolic Anthropology?
the study of culture as a system of meaning
Famous Anthropologist: Clifford Geertz, who saw culture as ideas based on learning and symbols
Sees a culture as a text whose meaning must be deciphered within that culture and historical setting
Anthropologists choose something in the culture that engages/interests them, fill in details and elaborate to inform readers
What is Interpretive Anthropology?
Human beings have certain universal characteristics – these cause people to think similarly regardless of society or cultural background
Famous Anthropologist : Claude Levi-Strauss
To impose order on aspects of nature, on people’s relation to nature, and on relations between people
Universal aspect of classification is opposition or contrast
What is Structuralism?
common means of classification – good/evil, black/white
What is ‘binary opposition’?
a field that examines the sociocultural dimensions of economic development
Developmental Anthropologists plan and guide policies pertaining to economic development
The goal is to increase equity
What is Developmental Anthropology?
the reduction in absolute poverty, with a more even distribution of wealth
In order to reach this goal, you should be working collaboratively with local people
What is ‘increased equity’?
Overinnovation – trying to achieve too much change (Causes many development projects to fail)
Underdifferentiation – seeing less-developed countries as all the same; ignoring cultural diversity
What are two problems that may be encountered as part of Developmental Anthropology?
the comparative, biocultural study of disease, health problems, and health care systems
Examines:
which diseases and health conditions affect individual populations and why
how illness is socially constructed, diagnosed, managed and treated in various societies
What is Medical Anthropology?
a scientifically identified health threat caused by a known pathogen
Incidence and severity of disease differ from culture to culture
Stark difference with indigenous populations worldwide
What is ‘disease’?
a condition of poor health perceived or felt by an individual
Particular cultures and ethnic groups recognize different illnesses, symptoms and causes- developing their own health systems and treatment strategies
What is ‘illness’?
Personalistic – blame illness on agents (sorcerers, ghosts, spirits)
Naturalistic – aims to link illness to scientifically demonstrated agents that bear no personal malice towards their victims
Emotionalistic – emotional experiences cause illness
What are the three basic theories of disease?
a communication system based on meaningful signs, sounds, gestures or marks
The primary means of human communication
May be spoken, written or signed
Language is transmitted through learning as part of enculturation
Language is based on learned associations between words and the things for which they stand
The complexity of our language allows us to conjure up elaborate images, to discuss the past and the future, to share our experiences with others and to benefit from experiences
What is ‘language’?
Anthropologists study language in both its social and cultural context
Key feature is how language is always changing
What is Linguistic Anthropology?
communication systems of nonhuman primates
There are a limited number of sounds (calls) that are produced when certain environmental stimuli are encountered
These calls are automatic and are not combined
The vocal tracts of primates are not suitable for speech
What are ‘call systems’?
transmission through learning
This is a basic component of language
What are ‘cultural transmissions’?
creating new expressions that are comprehensible to other speakers
A basic component of language
What is ‘productivity’?
describing things and events that are not present
A basic component of language
Example - Past, present, future
What is ‘linguistic displacement’?
A mutated gene, FOXP2, partially explains why humans speak and apes do not
British families with speech impediments were studied. It was found that they had the same version of this gene as primates – causing an inability to make the fine tongue and tip movements necessary for speech
It is believed that the speech friendly form of the gene mutated around 150,000 years ago
What are the theorized origins of language?
the study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures and facial expressions
Kinesics look not just at what is said but HOW it is said
Specifically at things like gestures, intonation, pitch, loudness, strategic pauses, silence
Much of our communication is nonverbal – which is problematic with rapid means of communication - like texting, messaging
What is ‘kinesics’?
Phonology – the study of sounds used in speech in a particular language
→ Considers what sounds are present and significant in each language
Morphology – the study of morphemes and word construction
Morphemes – words and their meaningful parts
Lexicon – vocabulary
→ All morphemes and their meanings
Syntax – the arrangement and order of words in phrases and sentences
Phoneme – the smallest sound contrast that distinguishes meaning
Example - pit and bit
Phonetics – the study of speech sounds – what people actually say
Phonemics – the study of significant sound contrasts in a language
What are eight aspects of the structure of language?
all humans have similar linguistic abilities and thought processes
Theorized by Noam Chomsky, a famous linguist
The existence of a ‘universal grammar’ is supported by our ability to translate foreign languages from one to another
And the existence of pidgins, which occur when different societies come into contact and must devise a system of communication
What is ‘universal grammar’?
a grammatically simplified form of a language, used for communication between people not sharing a common language
What is a ‘pidgin’?
the theory that different languages produce different patterns of thought
What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?
a set of words describing particular domains (foci) of experience
Vocabulary is the area of language that changes the most readily
The creation of new words – texted
Names get simpler as they become more common and important
What is ‘focal vocabulary’?
a language’s meaning system
What are ‘semantics’?
the study of lexical categories and contrasts
What are ‘ethnosemantics’?
focuses on features that vary systematically with social position and situation
Example study - The Language of Food by Jurafsky – looked at upscale vs cheaper menus food description
What is ‘sociolinguistics’?
varying one’s speech in different social contexts
What are ‘style shifts’?
a language with ‘high’ and low dialects (formal and informal)
Example – Dutch, German
What is ‘diglossia’?
terms of respect used in a language
Example: duke, duchess, dame, lady, lord
What are ‘honorifics’?
the study of languages over time
What is ‘historical linguistics’?
closely related languages (linguistic)
What are ‘subgroups’?
languages sharing a common parent language
What are ‘daughter languages’?
a language ancestral to several daughter languages
What is a ‘protolanguage’?
one among several culturally distinct groups in a society or region
Share certain beliefs, values, habits, customs and norms because of their common background
Distinguish themselves through religion, language, historical experience, geographic placement, kinship
Markers can include: a collective name, belief in common descent, a sense of solidarity, association with a specific territory
What are ‘ethnic groups’?
identification with, and feeling part of, an ethnic group and exclusion from certain other groups because of this affiliation
What is ‘ethnicity’?
any position, no matter what its prestige, that someone occupies in society
What is a ‘status’?
Ascribed Status – social status based on limited choice
Achieved Status – Social status based on choices or achievement
What are the two types of statuses?
occupy subordinate (lower) positions within a social hierarchy
These groups typically have inferior power and less secure access to resources than majority groups
What are ‘minority groups’?
No one is actually white, black, or yellow
If we attempt to classify by combining traits… We still have difficulties – which are we combining, how many combinations are there ?
Assumption is that there is genetic material that is shared and endured for some time
BUT phenotypes may change due to environment changes, not genetic changes
Biological similarity does not indicate recent common ancestry
What are the three objections to phenotype use for classification?
‘natural sunscreen’ produced by skin cells responsible for pigmentation
Manufactured in the epidermis (outer skin layer)
Screens out UV rays, providing protection from the sun
This can effect health – rickets and folate acid production
What is ‘melanin’?
Descent – social identity based on ancestry
Hypodescent – children of mixed unions assigned to the same group as their minority parent
This divided people into groups with unequal access to wealth, power and prestige
What are two social classifications of race in the United States?
the belief that a perceived racial difference is a sufficient reason to value one person less than another
Regards ethnic groups as having a biological basis – despite no evidence that they do
What is ‘intrinsic racism’?
Nation: a society that shares a language, religion, history, territory, ancestry and kinship
State: a society with a central government, administrative specialization and social classes
Nation-State: an autonomous political entity; a country
What is the difference between a nation, a state, and a nation-state?
the political, social, economic and cultural domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power for an extended time
What is ‘colonialism’?
the absorption of minorities within a dominant culture
Immigrant group adopts the patterns and norms of its host culture
What is ‘assimilation’?
a society with economically independent ethnic groups
What is a ‘plural society’?
the view of cultural diversity as valuable and worth maintaining
What is ‘multiculturalism’?
the idea of an association between ethnicity and the right to rule the United States
What is ‘ethno-nationalism’?
devaluing a group because of its assumed attributes
What is ‘prejudice’?
fixed ideas – often unfavorable – about what members of a group are like
What are ‘stereotypes’?
policies and practices that harm a group and its members
What is ‘discrimination’?
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