Criminology Theories: Schools, Key Concepts, and Critiques

Criminology

Study of why people engage in crime/antisocial behavior.

Schools of Criminological Theory

Broad categories of theories, defined by main explanatory variable.

The Classical School

A school of thought founded by Cesare Beccaria during the Enlightenment era, focusing on rational crime and deterrence.

Hedonic calculus

Concept that people weigh pleasure vs. pain, leading to crime if benefits outweigh costs.

Five Main Tenets of the Classical School

1. Crime is rational. 2. People weigh costs/benefits (hedonic calculus). 3. Swift, certain, severe punishment deters crime. 4. Punishment should be proportional. 5. Laws must be clear & public.

Impact of the Classical School

Strong influence on U.S. justice system; later revived as deterrence theory.

Criticisms of the Classical School

Assumes all crime is rational/self-interested; assumes punishment deters crime; not tested by scientific method.

The Positivist School

19th century response to the Classical school, claiming to use science.

Founder of the Positivist School

Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician.

Biological determinism

Focus of the Positivist School, suggesting that biology determines criminal behavior.

Atavistic criminals

Concept by Lombroso referring to evolutionary throwbacks that are predisposed to crime.

Phrenology

Pseudoscience linking head bumps to behavior.

Flaws of the Positivist School

Only studied prisoners, correlation mistaken for causation, traits linked to poverty/abuse, promoted scientific racism.

William Sheldon

Later positivist who linked body type to criminality.

Henry Goddard

Coined 'feeble-mindedness' and linked disability to crime, influencing eugenics.

Mid-20th Century Positivism

Sheldon & Eleanor Glueck studied juvenile delinquency, adding family/social factors.

Modern Biological/Positivist Theories

Consider genes, brain imaging, neurobiology, but face validity issues.

Hybrid approaches in criminology

Combines biology and environment to understand criminal behavior.

Incel subculture

Violent offshoot of misogynist 'manosphere' misusing evolutionary psychology.

Misuse of biological criminology

Incel subculture misapplies outdated biological criminology concepts.

Recidivism

The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend.

U.S. eugenics movement

A movement from the 1920s to 1970s that led to institutionalization and forced sterilization.

Gender essentialism

Belief that men and women have biologically fixed roles.

Incel violence

~90 fatalities (2014-2020) linked to violence from incel ideology.

Radicalization pipeline

Process through which young men are indoctrinated online.

Scientific misogyny

Use of debunked theories to justify violence against women.

Concentric Zone Theory

Theory by Park & Burgess (1925) stating that inner-city areas have higher crime rates.

Social Disorganization Theory

Theory by Shaw & McKay (1942) that crime is higher in areas with weak informal social control.

Collective efficacy

Neighbors enforcing norms to reduce crime.

Concentrated disadvantage

Conditions of poverty, unemployment, and social inequality contributing to crime.

Strain/Anomie Theory

Theory by Robert Merton (1938) stating that crime occurs when societal goals do not equal legitimate means.

American Dream

Societal goal in the U.S. that can lead to strain and crime.

Innovation

Reaction to strain where individuals commit crime to achieve societal goals.

Ritualism

Reaction to strain where individuals go through the motions without achieving goals.

Retreatism

Reaction to strain where individuals withdraw from society, often through substance use.

Rebellion

Reaction to strain where individuals reject societal goals and means.

Differential Association Theory

Theory by Sutherland & Cressey stating that crime is learned through close peer groups.

Social Bond Theory

Theory by Hirschi (1969) that crime occurs due to weak bonds to society.

Attachment, commitment, involvement, belief

The four types of bonds in Social Bond Theory.

Labeling Theory

Theory stating that being labeled 'criminal' leads to internalization and increased crime.

Critical School

Criminology perspective that questions who defines crime and benefits from it.

Core Ideas of Critical School

1. Laws serve those in power. 2. Laws disproportionately punish marginalized groups.

Feminist criminology

Focus on different pathways for women, often related to abuse leading to survival crime.

Macro-theories

Theories that focus on systemic inequality rather than individual behavior.

Neo-Classical Theories

Return to deterrence (swift, severe, certain punishment) during the 1980s.

Broken Windows Theory

Low-level crime & disorder lead to violent crime, as disorder causes residents to withdraw informal social control.

Key Difference vs. Social Disorganization

Social Disorganization = weak collective efficacy; Broken Windows = direct link from petty crime to violent crime.

Popularity of Broken Windows Theory

Published in The Atlantic, appealed as 'common sense' amid crime fears, emphasized community policing and zero tolerance.

Criticisms of Broken Windows Theory

No statistical evidence supporting it; contributed to mass incarceration, police brutality, and targeting of marginalized communities.

Environmental Theories

Focus on how living conditions & surroundings influence crime opportunities, still micro-level & deterrence-based.

Routine Activity Theory

Crime occurs when 3 factors converge: motivated offender, suitable/desirable target, absence of capable guardianship.

Applications of Routine Activity Theory

Used in environmental design, such as cameras, lighting, and neighborhood watch.

Criticisms of Routine Activity Theory

Shifts burden of prevention to individuals/victims and encourages victim-blaming, especially in sexual violence.

Conclusion of Theories

Criminology is complex & evolving; some theories debunked, others adapted with modern research.

Best Theories in Criminology

Those accounting for multiple factors (individual + social + systemic).

Classical School

Focuses on rational choice and punishment as deterrence.

Positivist School

Focus on biology/psychology, often seen as pseudoscientific, racist, and ableist.

Chicago School

Emphasizes the importance of environment and social structures (disorganization, strain).

Social Process Theory

Learning, social bonds, and labeling shape criminal behavior.

Neo-Classical (1980s)

Revival of deterrence; Broken Windows links petty crime to violent crime.

Criticism of Broken Windows

Influential but highly criticized for lack of data, racial bias, and mass incarceration.

Environmental Theories Focus

Focus on external settings; Routine Activity Theory states crime needs an offender, target, and lack of guardian.

Routine Activity Criticism

Victim-blaming, especially in the context of sexual violence.

Modern Criminology

Strongest explanations come from multi-factor, evidence-based approaches.