APES Chapter 9 Study Guide

Why conserve and preserve species? Identify the eight justifications for saving a species.

ecosystemic services, economic services, speciation takes a long time after rapid extinction, animals have the right to exist, medicinal value, genetic diversity, aesthetic value, cultural value.

The phrase “To Save a Species” may put the “Saving” focus on one of four distinct levels or in four different contexts. Briefly describe each of these four.

Zoos/Aquariums: Captive breeding of the species

Frozen Zoos: Seed storage for plants

Botanical Gardens: Gardens

WildLife Farms: breeding farms

Contrast a logistic growth curve with an exponential growth curve.

A logistic growth curve shows population growth that slows as it approaches the carrying capacity of the environment, resulting in an S-shaped curve. In contrast, an exponential growth curve depicts rapid population increase without constraints, resulting in a J-shaped curve.

Briefly explain why/how carrying capacity changes.

Precipitation, competition, food availability, space. Anything that can affect the max amount of species that can be in an area. 

Define maximum sustainable yield.

is the highest rate at which a renewable resource can be harvested sustainably without depleting its population in the long term.

Explain the flaws with each of the following assumptions as they pertain to attempts at applying science to the conservation and management of wildlife and fisheries

A. The population of a given species can be represented by a single number (its total size).

-A single number doesn’t consider the age, health and other factors of the given species.

B. Undisturbed by human activities, a population would grow to a fixed size, called the carrying capacity.

- The natural environment is always changing due to climate change competition, and other factors, humans make change but not all.

C. The environment is constant, except for human-induced changes.

- The natural environment is always changing due to climate change competition, and other factors, humans make change but not all.

Define minimum viable population.

the smallest population size at which a species can sustain itself over the long term, while having diversity.

What are the two major reasons for the endangered status of the Grizzly Bear in the United States?

habitat loss the bear loses its food source as well and human-wildlife conflict, including hunting and accidental killings

What are the two main reasons for the North American Bison being driven to near extinction?

Overhunting and land destruction

Discuss the possible advantage(s) of approaching wildlife management from the “ecological community & ecosystem level” vs. the “single species level.

Save more species, and get to the root of the problem then saving a singular species.

 Propose two ways of trying to prevent a tragedy of an open resource commons.

Management and regulations

Briefly describe what an “open resource” is.

Resources open to anybody regardless of status. 

In what way are (even) developed countries still hunter-gatherers?

They still eat and consume domestic products

In what way(s) have humans “domesticated” this fishing

breeding certain fish traits such as size

The major threats to global fisheries include:

Overfishing, bycatch, habitat destruction, pollution, illegal fish.

Briefly describe “scientific-based management of fish”:

Research and studies to watch over fish populations.

Identify five major ocean-bottom fish which are thought to be on the brink of extinction.

Atlantic Halibut, Orange Roughy, Bluefin Tuna, Chilean Sea Bass (Patagonian Toothfish), Grenadier (Rattail)

What is bycatch?

When other species are unintentionally caught, Ex. Dolphins getting caught when fishing big schools of fish.

Describe one potential advantage and one potential disadvantage of the aquatic biota- harvesting technique known as bottom trawling:

It can destroy the habitats from the heavy nets, kick up sand.

State the Primary and Secondary goals of the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972.

-Primary: Protect endangered Marine Mammals 

-Secondary: Protect the ecosystems of marine mammals

Explain why coastal zones contain the most productive fisheries.

A lot of sunlight, and photosynthetic rate, meaning more food for primary consumers.

Explain the following statement: “Commercial fish species are being mined, not sustained.”

More are being caught than the rate it can be replenished at

 Describe four anthropogenic stressors on the largest estuary in the United States.

Chesapeake Bay- nutrient pollution, overfishing, habitat loss, construction

Briefly describe each of the following fish/aquatic species harvesting methods:

A. Trawling- Using heavy nets that reach the ocean bottom

B. Long-lining- Using Long lines with many hooks to fish can be over a mile long

C. Purse-Seining- Large nets that come up from the bottom, used for schools

D. Drift-Netting- letting large nets drift

Contrast fish farming and fish ranching: Identify two species that are commonly farmed and two species that might be ranched. Be familiar with the term anadromous.

Fish Farming involves raising fish in controlled environments, like ponds, tanks, or enclosures, for their entire lives.

Fish Ranching involves raising young fish in captivity and then releasing them into the wild to grow and mature.

Anadromous fish are species that are born in freshwater, migrate to the ocean to grow and mature, and then return to freshwater to spawn. Ex. Salmon

Describe two specific concerns regarding the extensively maricultured Atlantic Salmon.

Disease and Parasites such as sea lice, and pollution

 What is the Red List?

The Red List is a comprehensive inventory maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) that assesses the conservation status of species around the world.

According to the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973, define: Edangered and Threatened

A. Endangered: Species close to extinction

B. Threatened: Species close to being endangered

How have local and global extinction rates changed since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution?

They have increased

Based on Figure 14.15, the majority of the extinctions since 1860 are due to the loss of many organisms in which “group”?

Vertebrates

Briefly describe the four “causes of extinction”, or “risk categories”, as they are sometimes called.

HIPPCO Habitat loss, Invasive species, Population growth, Pollution, Climate change, Overexploitation

By far, the two major anthropogenic causes of species decline are

#1 Cause = habitat loss; #2 Cause = resource taking

Identify three “success stories” regarding species once endangered which are now much improved in terms of numbers/health.

California Condor, Bald Eagle, Gray Wolf

Which two U.S. agencies are charged with listing species as endangered or threatened?

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)

Be familiar with the Kirtland’s Warbler case study regarding environmental change.

endangered due to habitat loss and cowbird parasitism, has seen a successful recovery through habitat restoration (including controlled burns) and cowbird management.

Describe how Michigan jack-pine stands represent an ecological island

isolated habitat that supports specialized species

fundamentals of the Theory of Island

Biogeography, first proposed by Robert MacArthur and E.O Wilson in the 1960s. Species-Area Relationship ( when an island is closer to the home land or the island is large the mor ebiodiversity there is)

 Habitat requirements and the use of spatial relationships to preserve/conserve species:

Habitat requirements specific conditions (food, shelter, water, space) that a species needs to survive and reproduce. Spatial relationships how species use their habitat

Be familiar with the passenger pigeon case study.

Most plentiful bird in the world and hunted to extinction

What is the “best guess” of the total number of species on Earth?

10-14 million

 Identify the life-forms in the U.S. with the highest level of risk.

flowering plants and freshwater aquatic species

Define a “rare” species.

Never abundant: mainly island species

What, specifically, does the “species-area relationship” suggest?

On avg., a 90% loss of habitat causes the extinction of about 50% of the species living in that habitat

Be familiar with the E/T species mentioned in class.

E/T Species: a few examples—Mountain Gorilla, Florida Manatee, Black lace Cactus, Symphonia, Grizzly Bear, Hawksbill Sea Turtle, Loggerhead Sea Turtle, Black Rhino, Florida Panther, Giant Panda, Oahu Tree Snail, Swallowtail Butterfly, Utah Prairie Dog, California Condor, Devils Hole Pupfish, Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly, Ghost Bat, Northern Spotted Owl, Black Footed Ferret, Arabian Oryx, Snow Leopard, West Virginia Spring Salamander, Eastern Indigo Snake, Pine Barrens Tree Frog, Mojave Desert Tortoise, Kirtland’s Warblers, White Top Pitcher Plant, Whooping Crane

Describe four characteristics of extinction-prone species.

Low repro. rate(K-strategists), Specialized Niche, Narrow distribution, Feed at high trophic levels, Fixed migratory patterns, Rare, Commercially Valuable, Large territories

Provide five examples of “nature’s pharmacy” (plants which provide chemicals used in health care, hygiene, etc., such as the previously noted neem tree):

Neem tree(India)toothpaste, fungicide, spermicide; Pacific Yew(PNW- USA)ovarian cancer; Foxglove(Europe)digitalis for heart failure; Rauvolfia(SE Asia)high b.p.medicine; Rosy Periwinkle(Madagascar)Hodgkin’s disease, lymphocytic leukemia; Cinchona(SA)quinine for malaria treatment

Describe the term “biophilia”

Famous biologist E.O. Wilson suggests that because of the millions and millions(billions) of years of biological connections leading to the evolution of the human species, we have an inherent affinity for the natural world; one of E.O.Wilson’s more well-known books is titled Biophilia, (1984).

When was the most recent mass extinction?

65 million years ago

Why do some biologists/environmental scientists suggest that there is a “new mass extinction”?

Habitat loss and alteration

Discuss the role of habitat loss, habitat degradation, and habitat fragmentation in terms of the general health of wild species.

Habitat Loss, degradation, reduction, fragmentation: resources, territory, food chains, food webs, migrations, wildlife corridors, edge effect

Discuss the influence of nonnative species on native plant and animal reductions/extinctions.

 Nonnatives/introduced species = the second leading cause of species decline (behind habitat loss)

 Name four introduced species that are generally considered to be beneficial.

Rice, Wheat, Corn, Cattle

Name four introduced species which are generally considered to be harmful or Detrimental.

Purple Loosestrife, Knapweed, Kudzu, Water hyacinth, Nutria, Argentine fire ant

Describe three likely mechanisms or avenues for accidentally introducing a species to a new area.

Hitchhikers on imported products, aircraft stowaways, in bilge water

Identify the three biome types in the U.S.A. which have been disturbed to the greatest extent.

Temperate Broadleaf Forests, Temperate Evergreen Forests, Temperate Grasslands

Why have the numbers of migratory birds declined?

Tropical forest logging, Fragmentation of their summer forest & grassland habitats in North America, deaths from collisions with TV, Radio, Phone, and other Towers(approx. 4 million migrating songbird

 kudzu case study

Introduced in the SE USA to control erosion in the 1930’s; prolific growersoon became invasive engulfing native vegetation

Describe seven characteristics of successful invader species (nonnative) species

High reprod. output, Pioneer Species, High dispersal rate, Release growth-inhibiting chemicals, Generalists, High Genetic variability

Describe six characteristics of ecosystems vulnerable to invader species.

Similar climate to habitat of invader, Absence of predators on invading species, Early successional species, Low diversity of native species, Absence of fire, Disturbed by human activities

Comment on the role which commercial hunting plays in the management of species. Include three examples of commercially-hunted species.

Numbers/Population Size(s), Habitat/Resources: Deer, Elk, Duck

 Identify four species in North America (or elsewhere) which have been the target in eradication efforts; briefly describe why these species were/are viewed as pests

Gray Wolf (livestock), Coyote, Prairie Dogs(grazing competitors w/ cattle), Bison, Carolina Parakeet(Crops),

what is CITES

Convention on (the) International Trade in(of) Endangered Species: 1975 agreement; 152 signatory nations; approximately 30,000 species whose international trade is monitored & regulated(w/ some species trading banned); enforcement difficult; violators often faced w/ small fine; exemption

What does the Convention on Biological Diversity call for from signatory Nations?

Legally binds signatory nations to reversing the global decline of biological diversity (US is not a signatory nation of the CBD, which came out of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit); nations are to adopt national biodiversity protection strategies and action, estab. Nationwide systems of protected areas, restoring degraded habitats, conserving E/T species & ecosystems, ecologically sustainable resource use, safe use/application of biotech. Products, equitable sharing of biodiversity benefits (e.g., new medicines)

Describe the Lacey Act. Who was the U.S. President when it was signed into law?

Animal (-parts)(-Birds esp. across state linesPermit; Animal(biota)Trade; 1900- William McKinely

Describe the E.S.A. ; Who was the U.S. President when it was signed into law?

E/T or potentially strong candidates for E/T species; 1973- Nixon

How has the number of (U.S.) species on the E/T list changed from 1973 - today?

Increased, ---from about 92 in 1973 to (approx.) 1,322 today (as of 12/10/09)

The addition or removal of a species from the E/T list is, by law, supposed to be based only on ______________________, not on ________________________ or ________________________ considerations.

Biological basis, not on an economical or political basis

The majority of U.S. species listed are: (Plants or Animals?)

Plants (roughly 750 as of 11/01/11)

Identify the “Top Six Biodiversity Hot Spots” in the U.S.A.

Hawaii, S.F. Bay area, Death Valley, Southern California, Southern Appalachians, Florida Panhandle

How can private land owners be encouraged to protect E/T species?

A. Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs)

These plans allow landowners to develop or use their property while implementing measures to protect endangered species. In exchange, they gain regulatory assurances that they won't face penalties for incidental harm to species if they follow the plan.

B. Safe Harbor Agreements (SHAs)

SHAs offer landowners protections from future legal liability if they voluntarily improve habitats for endangered species. If the species' numbers increase, the landowner isn't required to maintain the higher numbers beyond what was agreed upon.

C. Candidate Conservation Agreements (CCAs)

CCAs encourage landowners to take steps to protect species that are not yet listed as endangered but are at risk. These agreements often come with incentives like funding or technical support to improve habitats for these species.

National Academy of Sciences recommendations for making the ESA more scientifically sound and more effective

A. Increase funding

B. Develop Recovery Plans more quickly

C. Develop guidelines to avoid provisions that are scientifically or economically unsound and that spell out which actions are likely to hinder recovery.

D. Establish a Core Area (survival habitat) as a temporary emergency measure when a species is first listed that could support the species for at least 25- 50 years.

Because of limited funds, relatively limited information and few trained personnel, it is possible that not all E/T species will be “saved”. Given this, which species should be the focus, at least initially?

With limited resources, conservation should focus on:

1. Keystone Species: Species critical to ecosystem balance, like pollinators and apex predators.

2. Recovery Potential: Species with a good chance of recovery due to genetic diversity or habitat availability.

3. Umbrella Species: Large species whose protection helps conserve entire ecosystems and other species within them.

4. Human Benefit: Species with economic, cultural, or medicinal value to local communities.

5. Biodiversity Hotspots: High-diversity areas (e.g., rainforests, coral reefs) to maximize conservation impact.

This approach aims to make the best use of limited resources by focusing on species that provide broad ecosystem benefits.

Describe four approaches to protecting species from further decline:

Preserved areas (Refuge areas, National/International/State/Provincial Parks, etc.), Captive breeding, Egg Pulling, Zoos, Surrogate Moms/Embryo transfer,

What is the focus of wildlife management?

Manipulating wildlife populations and their habitats for their welfare and for human benefit; sustainable yield via laws, quotas, pop. management plans, improvement of wildlife habitat, international treaties to protect migrating game species

Provide three supporting statements for sport hunting.

Protection of habitat by controlling pop. size (absence of historical predator), health of species population(herd culling of weak/sick), “maintenance of ecosystem dynamics” …to some extent

Provide two examples of poaching.

Snow leopards (Nepal, India), Elk (Rocky Mountains), Elephants, rhinos

Describe the founder effect

The limited genetic diversity of a few individuals founding a population may not be enough to sustain the population

 Describe a TED

Turtle Exclusion Device: “trap door”, escape exit in fishing net

Describe three reasons why sea turtles are E / T.

Degradation of beach habitat, egg poaching (exactly), increased uses as food, medicinal ingredients, jewelry, bycatch

What is the IWC and what is the primary goal of this body?

International Whaling Commission: established in 1946 to regulate the whaling industry by setting annual quotas; has been unable to stop the decline of most commercially hunted whale species to the point of commercial extinction, although the Commission has spearheaded a number of success stories regarding the population size of several whale species.

What is an ITQ.

Individual Transfer Quota(s): each fishing vessel owner is given a specifiedpercentage of the total allowable catch (TAC) for a fishery in a given year

Describe two proposals which might enhance the Columbia River’s (could be applied to other dammed rivers) salmon populations.

-Building hatcheries upstream of the dams and releasing juveniles from these hatcheries to under-populated streams(so they will return to them to reproduce),

-Building fish ladders to allows some adult salmon to bypass dams during their upstream migration,

-Using trucks and barges to transport juvenile wild salmon around dams,

-Turning off turbines to allow juveniles to swim through dam (turbine chamber) during heavy downstream migration,

-Releasing extra water from dams to help wash juvenile salmon downstream at a (faster) rate closer to their natural migration rate

-Putting more stream areas off-limits for hydropower development,

-Reducing silt/soil erosion from logging roads located above salmon spawning streams

Biomagnification

Biomagnification refers to the process by which the concentration of toxic substances increases in organisms as one moves up the food chain. For instance, when small fish absorb contaminants from their environment (like mercury), and then larger fish eat multiple smaller fish, the larger fish accumulate a much higher concentration of these toxins. This phenomenon affects top predators significantly, as they often have the highest levels of these harmful substances in their bodies due to their position in the food web.

Bioaccumulation/Bioconcentration

Bioaccumulation refers to the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Over time, the concentration of these substances can increase in the individual organism, often occurring when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate faster than it can eliminate it. This is especially significant for organisms at the top of the food chain, as they can ingest many lower organisms that have themselves accumulated toxins.

What are some species relationships in streets or roads

buffers like bridges and animal crossings

Marine biodiversity vs terrestrial biodiversity

Marine biodiversity iis harder to protect