Molecules, Organelles, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ systems, Organisms
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What do physical and chemical characteristics influence?
structures interactions and functions
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How is structure related to function?
Evolution and adaptation
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What are emergent properties?
Each level of organization has properties not exhibited by lower levels
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All cells must exchange what?
materials with the external environment
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All perception and response requires what?
information flow
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What is homeostasis?
the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment
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Homestasis relies on what?
Negative feedback
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What is negative feedback?
a control mechanisms where response opposes original stimulus
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What is positive feedback?
a control mechanism where response reinforces original stimulus
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Negative Feedback example
Bodies sweat to cool down when we are hot
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Positive feedback example
Uterine contractions during labour lead to stronger uterine contractions
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Stored energy is converted to what to carry out cellular work?AT
ATP
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Natural Selection favours the evolution of efficient use of _ within _
resources, constraint
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Resource trade off example
Wound healing vs egg production
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Female trade off example
Overtraining in female athletes can cause them to stop menstruating
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Haploid _ combine to form a diploid _
gametes, zygote
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What is information flow?
Any process or list of events
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What is an acrosome
Vesicle that contains hydrolytic enzymes
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What is a cortical granule
Vesicle that contains enzymes
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What do sperm binding receptors ensure?
only sperm of same species ligands can bind to receptor
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What is a jelly coat?
Provide protection, releases chemicals detected by sperm
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How is acrosomal reaction triggered?
Contact with the jelly coat
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Plasma membranes fuse triggering fast block to _
Polyspermy
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Sperm nucleus enters and cortical reaction causes what
slow block to polyspermy
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What is depolarization?
Change of charge in cell
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Water lift from plasma membrane (osmosis) creates _ between _?
perivitelline space between egg cell membrane and fertilization envelope
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What is polyspermy?
Fertilization by multiple sperm
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Preventing polyspermy ensures zygote has the correct balance of maternal and paternal _
Chromosomes
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what is the process by which the zygote becomes multicellular?
Cleavage
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When does cleavage happen?
after fertilization
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Cleavage results in what?
many smaller cells called blastomeres
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What is the blastocoel?
fluid filled cavity
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What happens to the size of the blastula through cleavage?
Stays the same
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Every single cell in embryo has a _
identical genome
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What is differential gene expression?
Cells express different genes depending on their location and the stage of development
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Expressing different _ leads to production of different _
genes, proteins
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How does a cell know what genes to express at any given time?
Cytoplasmic determinants, inductive signals
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signal that comes from within the cell is_
cytoplasmic determinant
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Signal that comes from outside the cell is_
Inductive signals
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How do cytoplasmic determinants result in differences in gene expression?
Can be differentially distributed to daughter cells
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Signal molecules that a cell is exposed to depends on _ and _
location within embryo, stage of development
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If a cell that normally develops into a muscle cell develops into a skin cell when moved to a different part of the embryo, which mechanism is responsible for determining this cell’s fate?
Induction
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What is morphogenesis?
Rearrangement of cells or sheets of cells in the embryo
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What is gastrulation?
Stage when the three germ layers are established and the basic body plan is set up
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what is organogenesis
formation of the organs
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What is neurulation
formation of nervous system
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Gastrulation results in what
a three layered Gastrula
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How is the blastopore formed?
Cells in the vegetal hemisphere push inward
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Gastrulation Process
Blastopore forms, outer cells roll in, blastocoel becomes archenteron, cells at pole spread over outer surface
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The outer cells become what in gastrulation?
future endoderm and mesoderm
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Blastocoel collapsed to form what?
Archenteron
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Morphogenesis is Achieved through what?
Changes in Cell Position, Shape, Survival
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Convergent extension produces what?
a longer, narrower structure
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Ectodermal cells change shape during what?
neural tube formation
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T/F: Endodermal cells express same genes as ectodermal cells
False
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What does programmed cell death do?
helps shape embryos
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What 4 things cause changes in cell position, shape and survival?
Position of cell within embryo, Cytoplasmic determinants , gene expression within cell, Proteins produced
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Cleavage converts _ into _
unicellular zygote, multicellular embryo
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Chemical signalling between cells coordinates responses at the _, _, and _ levels
Cellular, tissue, system
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Endocrine system signal type
Hormone
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Endocrine system transmission
Blood
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Endocrine system speed
Fast or slow depending on hormone
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Endocrine system duration
short or long
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Endocrine system specificity
achieved by hormone receptor interaction
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Nervous system signal type
Electric impulse and chemical neurotransmitter
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Nervous system transmission
Neuron
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Nervous system speed
Fast
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Nervous system duration
short
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Nervous system specificity
achieved by close connection of neurons and target cells
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hormone signals travel _, Neuron signals travel _
everywhere, to a specific location
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Nervous system example
Pulling hands away from a hot surface
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Endocrine system example
Initiating puberty
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Nervous system is specialized for what?
Direct immediate and rapid responses
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Endocrine system is specialized for what?
Coordinating gradual changes that affect entire body
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Nervous system is composed of _ and _
Neurons, glia
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Glia functions
Maintain homeostasis, form myelin, nourish and provide support for neurons
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Electrical impulses are triggered where?
at the dendrites
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How is a nerve impulse sent?
Neurotransmitter released, crosses synapse, binds to receptors on postsynaptic cell
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Central nervous system components
Brain, spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system components
Cranial nerve, ganglia, spinal nerves
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What is a ganglia?
Group of cell bodies
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What is a nerve?
Axons bundled together
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3 stages of information processing in the nervous system
sensory input, integration, motor output
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Information travels from _ NS to _ NS
Peripheral, central
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Where is the synapse found?
Between sensory neuron and motor neuron
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What do motor neurons do?
Tell muscles to contract
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Where is interneuron found?
Only in CNS
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What does the interneuron do?
Interact with motor neuron, tells related muscle to relax
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endocrine cells secrete _ into blood, affecting _ to regulate physiology and behaviour
Hormones, target cells
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Hypothalamus function
Acts as master regulator of endocrine system
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Where is hypothalamus found?
In the pituitary gland
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Posterior Pituitary is made up of _ of _ of the _
Axons, neurosecretory cells, hypothalamus
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What is a neurosecretary cell?
Neuron that produces and secretes a hormone into blood
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Anterior pituitary is made up of what?
endocrine cells
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How do endocrine cells respond to hormones from hypothalamus?
respond by secreting their own hormones
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Hypothalamic hormones arrive via what?
arrive via portal vessels
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Hierarchical organization of endocrine system
Hypothalamus, posterior and anterior pituitary, other endocrine glands
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