cumulative review psych

psychology defined

scientific study of human thought and behavior

roots of psychology

philosophy, medicine and physics

psychophysics

the study of how people experience physical stimuli such as light, sound waves, and touch
the branch of psychology that studies the relation between attributes of the physical world and our psychological experience of them

natural selection

a feedback process whereby nature favors one design over another because it has an impact on reproduction

theory of evolution darwin

states that organisms change and develop over time to adapt to increase rate of survival; all species share a common ancestor

what is science

an organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world

scientific method

observe, predict, test, interpret, communicate, replicate (OPTICR)

three major kinds of research methods

naturalistic-field observation, experimental design, correlational design

naturalistic-field observation

a study in which the researcher unobtrusively observes and records behavior in the real world ( what is x?)

experimental design

researchers randomly assign participants conditions and carefully manipulate the predicted cause then look for difference in outcome (does X cause y?)

correlational design

studies that measure two or more variables and their relationship to one another; not designed to show causation (is x related to y?)

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

reliability

the consistency of a measurement, such as an intelligence test

validity

the degree to which a test accurately measures what it purports to measure, such as intelligence, and not something else, and the degree to which it predicts real-world outcomes

single gene transmission

not much variability (eye and hair color)

multiple gene transmisson

great variability (weight, height, all psychological traits)

epigenetics

the study of changes in the way genes are turned on or off without a change in the sequence of DNA

neurons

the cells that process and transmit information in the nervous system

structure of a neuron

dendrites, cell body, axon, soma, myelin sheath, terminal buttons

dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

soma (cell body)

contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

terminal buttons

small knobs at the end of axons that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters

action potential

the impulse of positive charge that runs down an axon (resting, depolarization, repolarization, refractory)

depolarization

the depolarization, also called the rising phase, is caused when positively charged sodium ions (Na+) suddenly rush through open voltage-gated sodium channels into a neuron

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

brain

the mass of nerve tissue that is the main control center of the nervous system

four lobes

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

frontal lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment

temporal lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

parietal lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

occipital lobe

a region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

thalamus

a forebrain structure that receives information from the senses and relays it to the cerebral cortex for processing

hypothalamus

a limbic structure; the master regulator of almost all major drives and motives we have, such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior; also controls the pituitary gland

amygdala

a small, almond-shaped structure located directly in front of the hippocampus; has connections with many important brain regions and is important for processing emotional information, especially that related to fear

hippocampus

a limbic structure that wraps itself around the thalamus; plays a vital role in learning and memory

basal ganglia

a collection of structures surrounding the thalamus; involved in voluntary motor control

brain plasticity

varies with age, strongest when young

sensation

the process in which the body gathers information about the environment

perception

the process in which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information

rods and cones

two types of photoreceptors located in the retina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
what do rods and cones connect to?

gestalt principles

similarity: where we tend to group like objects together in visual perception
proximity: where we tend to group objects together that are near one another
closure: the tendency to perceive a whole object in the absence of complete information

senorimotor stage

0-2, knowledge through senses (especially hands and mouth) and motor movement. no innate knowledge or perceptual biases. early on, all behavior is unintentional and then becomes increasingly intentional/willful. manipulation of objects. object permanence develops between 4-9 months.

preoperational stage

2-6, has no way of operating on mental ideas. immediate appearance over logic. thinking is ego-centric (before age 4 or 5, children simply cannot imagine what others are seeing or feeling), unable to reserve or conserve. appearance is reality.

concrete operational stage

in piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

12 and up, abstract reasoning and formal logic now possible. idealism, reflection and meta-cognition. can consider many different solutions before acting. systematic thinking. not all people advance to formal operations to the same extent.

three types of attachment

avoidant attachment, secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment

secure attachment

65% of children, distressed on departure, but warm hugs on return; child settles.

avoidant attachment

20-25% of children, not distressed on departure, no reunion, ignores attachment figure.

anxious-ambivalent attachment

10-15% of children, distressed all the time, held on return but also pushes away.

REM

stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream; much activity during this stage, ANS arousal, sexual arousal.

stage 1 (nrem alpha)

transition period between wakefulness and sleep. slowdown in rates of respiration and heartbeat. Decrease in overall muscle tension and core body temperature. Associated with both alpha and theta waves. Easy to wake someone up from.

stage 2 (nrem theta)

state of deep relaxation, theta waves still dominate brain activity, but are interrupted by short bursts of activity (sleep spindles).appearance of k-complexes (very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli).

stage 3 (nrem delta)

deep sleep or slow-wave sleep. characterized by low frequency (less than 3hz) and high amplitude of delta waves. individual's heart rate and respiration slow dramatically.

freudian view of dreams

dreams are unconscious wishes, impulses, and are interpreted through free association

biological view of dreams

dreams are devoid of meaning and are a result of random brain activity

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

opiods

synthetic, lab (percocet, vicodin, oxycotin/oxycodone, demerol, fentanyl)

opiates

from nature, opium poppy (morphine, opium, codeine, heroin (morphine-based but with synthetic compounds added)), they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

memory

the capacity to preserve and recover information

encoding

the process by which the brain attends to, takes in, and integrates new information; the first stage of long-term memory formation

storage

the retention of memory over time; the third stage of long-term memory formation

retrieval

the recovery of information stored in memory; the fourth stage of long-term memory

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

false memory

a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur

visual representation

a picture, image or graph designed to show information

verbal representation

propositional and semantic representations

sensitivity period

a period when a particular type of learning occurs very readily if an animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation

heuristics

mental shortcuts for making complex and uncertain decisions and judgments

availbility heuristic

our tendency to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions about the future (ex: plane crashes make people afraid of flying, yet we go in cars everyday and they are far more dangerous)

representive heuristic

biased judgments made in everyday life (ex: someone who is 6ft plays basketball)

inductive reasoning

reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions (ex: laura is being rude to me (specific), laura is rude to other people (general), therefore, laura is a rude person (generalization))

deductive reasoning

reasoning from general propositions to specific conclusions (ex: psychology is always interesting, this is a psychology class, therefore, this psychology class is interesting) if the premise is correct, the conclusion will be correct. if the premise is false, the conclusion will be false

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

g-factor theory of intelligence

spearman's theory that intelligence is a single general factor made up of specific components.

IQ vs Intelligence

IQ = MA/CA x 100 (children)
MA = mental age
CA = chronological age (ex: a child with a mental age of 10 and a chronological age of 10 has an IQ of 100: (10/10) x 100 = 100)

multiple intelligence theory

expands notion of intelligence beyond purely academic/IQ ; disagrees w g-factor, includes artistic and interpersonal skills

fluid intelligence

the ability to think through a problem one has never confronted before and recognize patterns that may lead to a solution.

crystallized intelligence

the kind of knowledge that one gains from experience and learning, education, and practice

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent vs divergent thinking

convergent: believing there is a single correct answer; divergent: thinking there are multiple possible answers to a problem

synaptic transmission

the relaying of information across the synapse by means of chemical neurotransmitters

what happens in eye when light hits retina

photoreceptors (rods and cones) turn the light into electrical cells. these electrical signals travel from the retina through the optic nerve to the brain. then the brain turns the signals into the images you see

mind-body dualism

mental is related to physical; mind controls body and they are separate

tabula rasa

john locke; a clean slate; all knowledge comes from experience or perception

weber's law

the amount of change needed to produce a constant JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity

gustav fechner

weber's mentor; psychophysics, study of physical and psychological worlds

gestalt

says we perceive things as a whole rather than parts

behaviorism (watson)

proposed that psychology can be a true science only if it examines observable behavior, not ideas, thoughts, feelings, or motives