final review

Name some hormones associated with the anterior pituitary

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone (GH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Name some hormones associated with the posterior pituitary

Oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Name some hormones associated with the pancreas

Insulin and glucagon — regulate blood sugar levels

Name some hormones associated with the thyroid

Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) — regulate metabolism

Name some hormones associated with the hypothalamus

Produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that control the anterior pituitary

Testicle anatomy

Sperm is created in the seminiferous tubules, stored in the epididymis, and carried through the vas deferens to the urethra. The scrotum is the pouch that holds the testicles

Pathway of sperm in females

Sperm move through the cervix, uterus, and oviducts to reach an ova. Fertilization occurs in the oviducts, forming a zygote

Which tube takes urine to the outside of the body?

The urethra

What organ is responsible for the formation of urine? Name the exact part of the functional unit of this organ where it becomes urine

Kidneys — nephron is where filtration occurs

Behaviours of a cat or dog that can’t pee?

Straining, frequent trips to the litter box/outside, vocalizing, distended abdomen

Why is urination important?

Removes waste products from the body, regulating fluid balance, and maintaining electrolyte levels

Problematic urine colours

Dark yellow or amber — dehydration

Red/brown/black — blood or other health issues

What are the phases of the estrus cycle — list one significance of each phase

Proestrus (4-20 days — FSH triggers follicle to develop, more affectionate/playful), estrus (5-13 days — true heat, estrogen is high), metestrus (no mating)/diestrus (ready for pregnancy, no heat signs) (60-90 days), anestrus (2-3 months — ovarian inactivity)

During an estrous cycle, label the phase and what behaviour an owner might see

Estrus — increased affection, restlessness, desire to mate

How long does the average dog look like it is “in heat”? When can the dog be successfully bred?

2-3 weeks — can be successfully bred during the estrus phase

What are the different estrus cycle types?

Monoestrous (one cycle per year), diestrous (two cycles per year), polyestrous (multiple cycles throughout the year)

What hormone starts the heat cycle?

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) initiated the heat cycle by stimulating the release of FSH and LH

What is the phase of the estrus cycle that cats may have that dogs don’t?

Induced ovulation

What is the average gestation of the dog or cat?

63 days (9 weeks)

If the animal is pregnant what hormone must be present to maintain the pregnancy?

Progesterone

What hormone is present when parturition starts?

Oxytocin

What date can pregnancy be confirmed, with what method? When can skeletons be counted?

Confirmed 21 days post-mating using ultrasound (palpation of the abdomen at 35-42 days) — skeletons can be counted after 45 days

How long of a delay should there be between the delivery of each puppy/kitten?

30 minutes to 2 hours

What discharge colour indicated a problem post partum?

Foul-smelling green or brown — may indicate infection

Define the endocrine system

Network of glands that produce and release hormones to regulate various body functions

What gland controls the pituitary gland? In what way does it control it?

Hypothalamus — by releasing hormones that stimulate or inhibit its function

What gland is the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system?

Hypothalamus

ACTH meaning and target gland

Adrenocorticotropic hormone — affects the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland

What does ADH stand for? Does it make urine more or less concentrated?

Antidiuretic hormone — makes urine more concentrated

What are the hormones that are associated with the medulla of the adrenal gland? These hormones are important in what part of the nervous system?

Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine — important in the sympathetic nervous system

What organ is involved in both the digestive and endocrine systems? What are the names of the functions?

Pancreas — secreting digestive enzymes and hormones like insulin

How are hormone levels different in male vs female gonads?

Males primarily produce testosterone, while females produce estrogen and progesterone

What cells produce testosterone? Where are these cells found?

Leydig cells — found in the testes

What hormone do you need to be present to release the ova?

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

What hormone do you need to stay pregnant? Where does this hormone come from?

Progesterone — produced by the corpus luteum

Name the common structures involved in digestion? Name the accessories and what structures they are associated with

Common = mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines

Accessory = liver, pancreas

Types of herbivorous digestion?

Foregut fermentation (ruminants) and hindgut fermentation (non-ruminants)

What structures break down food for birds so they can digest it?

Gizzard and crop

Name sphincters in different systems and what is their function

Cardiac sphincter (digestive), anal sphincter (digestive), urethral sphincter (urinary) — all control passages of substances

How is the nervous system divided?

CNS, PNS, ANS

Sections of the brain

Cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem

Types of peripheral nerves

Sensory, motor, mixed

Differentiating muscle groups

Skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), cardiac (involuntary)

Injection sites and why they are used?

Common = shoulder (subQ), thigh (IM), vein (IV) — for medication delivery

Types of sensory receptors

Mechanoreceptors (touch), chemoreceptors (chemicals), nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (temperature), photoreceptors (sight/light)

Structures of the ear

Outer ear (pinna), middle ear (ossicles), inner ear (cochlea)

Basic eye structures

Cornea (protects), iris (regulates light, dilates/constricts), retina (rods for light and cones for colour)

Hardest sense for a dog to lose?

Smell — relies on scent for communication and navigation

Hardest sense for a cat to lose?

Sight — rely heavily for hunting and navigation