15.1 What Are Psychological Disorders? • 15.2 Diagnosing & Classifying • 16.1 Treatment: Past & Present • APA Code of Ethics • 16.2 Types of Treatment • 16.3 Treatment Modalities • 4.6 Other States of Consciousness

Psychological Disorder

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. These patterns are typically deviant (atypical), distressful (causing pain), and dysfunctional (maladaptive), interfering with daily life and social functioning.

Psychopathology

the scientific study of mental disorders, including their theoretical underpinnings, causes (etiology), progression, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment. It is often used interchangeably with the term abnormal psychology or simply "mental illness"

Etiology

the scientific study of the causes, origins, or reasons behind a mental disorder, psychological condition, or abnormal behavior. It examines how biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors contribute to the development and manifestation of mental health issues

Atypical (deviation from norm)

actions, emotional reactions, or thought patterns that are statistically rare, unusual, or deviate significantly from the established norms, standards, or expectations of a particular society or culture

Dysfunction

a breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning that interferes with daily life, often termed "maladaptive". It is a key component of the "3 D's" (Dysfunction, Distress, Deviance) used to define psychological disorders, indicating that a behavior prevents a person from functioning normally.

Distress

negative stress caused by unpleasant, undesirable, or overwhelming stressors that exceed a person's ability to cope. It is characterized by harmful physical and psychological reactions—such as anxiety, burnout, and emotional suffering—that impair daily functioning, acting as the opposite of eustress

Stigma

a mark of disgrace, negative attitude, or stereotype directed at a person or group based on a specific characteristic—such as a mental illness, physical disability, or social trait—that is devalued by society. Stigma leads to prejudice, discrimination, and the social exclusion of individuals, often causing them to be viewed as "tainted" or "abnormal"

American Psychiatric Association

the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the U.S. and the world's largest psychiatric organization. It is primarily known in AP Psychology for publishing the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the standard reference for diagnosing mental disorders

Functional Impairment

the reduction in an individual’s ability to perform everyday tasks, fulfill expected life roles, and maintain independence due to psychological, cognitive, or physical conditions. It is the measurable, real-world impact of symptoms—explaining what a person cannot do (or struggles to do) rather than just what they feel

Diagnostic Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

the American Psychiatric Association’s official handbook used to diagnose and classify mental disorders. It provides standardized criteria, symptoms, and prevalence statistics for disorders, enabling consistent diagnosis across professionals, insurance companies, and research studies

Comorbidity

the presence of two or more distinct, co-occurring mental or physical health disorders in a single individual. These conditions can exist simultaneously and often interact, making diagnosis, treatment, and recovery more complex.

World Health Organization

a holistic or biopsychosocial view of health, rather than a purely medical one.

International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD)

a global diagnostic tool developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) to classify all health conditions, including mental and behavioral disorders. It provides standardized, international criteria for identifying, coding, and tracking mental disorders to ensure consistent, worldwide diagnosis and research.

Asylums

an historical institution established in the 18th and 19th centuries to provide custodial care, shelter, and (ideally) treatment for individuals with severe mental illnesses, often referred to at the time as "lunatics" or the "insane"

Dorothea Dix

(1802–1887) was a 19th-century American activist and social reformer who revolutionized the treatment of the mentally ill. She advocated for compassionate "moral treatment," successfully lobbying for the creation of public mental health institutions and improving conditions for inmates

Electroconvulsive Therapy

a biomedical therapy for severe mental disorders, particularly treatment-resistant depression, where a brief, controlled electric current is passed through the brain under anesthesia to induce a seizure. It acts as a "reset" for brain chemistry, commonly used when medications or psychotherapy fail.

Deinstitutionalization

the 20th-century movement of transitioning patients with mental illnesses from long-term, isolated psychiatric institutions to community-based care. Triggered by new medications and inhumane asylum conditions, it aimed to promote independence, but often resulted in homelessness or criminalization due to insufficient community support

Antipsychotics

a class of psychoactive drugs (also known as neuroleptics) used to treat symptoms of severe psychosis, such as hallucinations, delusions, and severe agitation, primarily by reducing Dopamine neurotransmission in the brain. They are commonly used for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and mania

Voluntary/involuntary treatment

In AP Psychology, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary treatment centers on patient consent, autonomy, and legal capacity, usually within the context of psychiatric hospitalization or mental health care

Ethical Principles

a set of moral guidelines established by the American Psychological Association (APA) to ensure the safety, dignity, and welfare of human and animal participants in research and clinical practice. They include informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm, and debriefing, ensuring scientific integrity

• Informed Consent: Participants must be told the study's purpose, risks, and benefits, and voluntarily agree to participate.

• Right to Withdraw: Participants must feel free to leave a study at any time.

• Confidentiality/Privacy: Data must be kept secure and identities protected.

• Protection from Harm/Nonmaleficence: Researchers must maximize benefits and minimize risks (do no harm).

• Debriefing: After the study, participants must be informed of the true purpose, particularly if deception was used.

Nonmaleficence

an ethical principle in psychology requiring researchers and practitioners to "do no harm" to participants or patients. It focuses on preventing intentional harm, minimizing risks, and avoiding negligent actions that could cause physical or psychological suffering, serving as a core requirement in research ethics

Fidelity

the ethical principle of establishing trust, loyalty, and professionalism in relationships, specifically within client-therapist interactions. As part of the APA's Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility, it requires honoring commitments, maintaining confidentiality, and managing conflicts of interest to avoid harm.

Integrity

the ethical standard of honesty in research/practice, or, more commonly, Ego Integrity in Erik Erikson’s final psychosocial stage (Integrity vs. Despair). It represents looking back on life with a sense of wholeness, acceptance, and fulfillment rather than regret

Respect

a core ethical principle and a social concept referring to an attitude of esteem, regard, and consideration toward oneself, others, and the environment. It involves validating the feelings, beliefs, and worth of individuals, even when they differ from one's own

Psychotherapy

the treatment of emotional, behavioral, or mental disorders through psychological techniques, involving an interaction between a trained therapist and a client seeking to overcome difficulties or achieve personal growth.

Therapeutic Alliance

the cooperative, trusting, and collaborative relationship between a therapist and client, deemed essential for successful treatment. It involves a strong emotional bond, mutual agreement on treatment goals, and shared commitment to tasks needed to achieve those goals

Psychodynamic Therapies

insight-oriented talk therapies derived from psychoanalytic traditions that focus on uncovering unconscious motives, unresolved childhood conflicts, and past experiences to treat current psychological distress. Unlike traditional psychoanalysis, these approaches are often less intense, shorter-term, and focus on enhancing self-insight to change behavior.

Psychoanalysis

a therapeutic approach and theory focusing on bringing unconscious conflicts, memories, and desires into conscious awareness to treat psychological disorders. AP Psychology emphasizes its use of techniques like free association and dream analysis to uncover repressed material influencing behavior

Free Association

a fundamental psychoanalytic technique developed by Sigmund Freud, where patients share every thought, feeling, or image that comes to mind without censorship or filtering. Used to explore the unconscious mind, this method helps uncover repressed memories, hidden emotions, and unconscious conflicts, allowing therapists to interpret underlying, often painful, psychological material.

Dream Interpretation (analysis)

a psychoanalytic technique, primarily associated with Sigmund Freud, that analyzes dream imagery, symbols, and emotions to uncover latent, unconscious desires and conflicts. It involves distinguishing between the manifest content (literal storyline) and latent content (hidden, symbolic meaning) to understand underlying emotional states

Transference

a psychoanalytic phenomenon where a patient unconsciously redirects emotions, desires, and feelings from significant childhood figures (like parents) onto their therapist. It represents a distortion of reality where past relationships are projected onto current ones. It often appears in therapy as love, anger, or dependency.

Play Therapy

a structured, evidence-based psychotherapeutic approach primarily used with children (typically ages 3–12) that leverages the natural medium of play to help them communicate, express emotions, and process experiences when they lack the verbal skills to do so through traditional "talk" therapy. It is a "developmentally responsive intervention" that treats toys as the child’s words and play as their language

Behavior Therapy (Applied Behavior Analysis)

a scientific, evidence-based therapy that applies learning principles—primarily operant conditioning—to understand and modify behavior. It focuses on increasing positive behaviors, teaching new skills, and reducing harmful ones through positive reinforcement, data-driven strategies, and structured, individualized interventions.

Counterconditioning

a behavioral therapy technique that replaces an unwanted conditioned response (such as fear) to a stimulus with a desired response (such as relaxation) by associating the stimulus with a new, positive, or opposite, stimulus. It is a form of classical conditioning used to reverse previous negative conditioning

Aversive Conditioning

a type of counterconditioning and behavior modification in AP Psychology that pairs an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant, uncomfortable stimulus to reduce or eliminate that behavior. It functions by creating a negative association, replacing a positive response to a harmful habit with a negative one

Biofeedback

a mind-body technique where individuals learn to voluntarily control normally involuntary physiological functions (e.g., heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure) by receiving real-time, electronic feedback. It acts as a bridge between mental states and physical responses to treat conditions like stress, anxiety, and migraines.

Exposure Therapies

a behavioral technique used in AP Psychology to treat anxiety disorders, PTSD, and phobias by safely and gradually exposing individuals to feared objects, situations, or memories. Based on classical conditioning (or Pavlovian extinction), it breaks avoidance patterns to reduce anxiety and desensitize patients

Systematic Desensitization

a behavioral therapy technique, developed by Joseph Wolpe, used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders by pairing relaxation techniques with gradual exposure to a feared stimulus. It is based on the principle of reciprocal inhibition, meaning one cannot be both relaxed and anxious simultaneously

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy

treatment for anxiety disorders and phobias that immerses patients in safe, computer-generated, 3D environments to confront feared stimuli. It acts as a form of vivo exposure where patients gradually habituate to phobias like heights or spiders, or process traumatic memories, without the logistical, safety, or logistical constraints of real-life exposure

Token Economy

an operant conditioning procedure and behavior modification system where individuals earn tokens (secondary reinforcers) for exhibiting desired target behaviors. These tokens are later exchanged for, or "cashed in" for, meaningful rewards, privileges, or treats (backup reinforcers). It is widely used to manage behavior in classrooms and institutional settings.

Cognitive Therapies

a form of psychotherapy, often developed by Aaron Beck, that treats mental health disorders by identifying and challenging irrational, distorted, or negative thought patterns, replacing them with healthier, adaptive beliefs. It operates on the principle that changing thoughts (cognitions) changes feelings and behaviors.

Cognitive Restructuring

a core Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) technique in AP Psychology used to identify, challenge, and replace maladaptive, irrational, or negative thoughts with healthier, realistic ones. It aims to alter cognitive distortions, reducing emotional distress and changing behavioral reactions

Fear Hierarchies

a ranked list of anxiety-provoking situations or stimuli related to a specific phobia, ordered from least to most frightening. Patients gradually face these fears, starting with the least severe, to overcome phobias and anxiety.

Cognitive Triad

concept explaining that depression stems from three consistent, negative thought patterns: a negative view of oneself, the world/experience, and the future.

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy

an active-directive, cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy developed by Albert Ellis in the 1950s that identifies and challenges irrational, self-defeating beliefs to reduce emotional distress and change negative behaviors. It focuses on the present, arguing that irrational beliefs (B), not external events (A), cause unhealthy emotional consequences (C), which can be disputed (D) and replaced with new, effective, rational philosophies (E)

• The ABCDE Method: A classic example involves a student failing a test.

  • A (Activating Event): Fails a math exam.

  • B (Beliefs - Irrational): "I am stupid, I will fail the class, and I am a failure."

  • C (Consequences): Depression, fear, and stopping studying.

  • D (Disputing): A therapist helps the student challenge this: "Is it true one test defines your intelligence?".

  • E (Effective New Philosophy): "I failed one test, but I can study harder and improve".

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies

an action-oriented, short-term psychotherapy that treats mental health disorders by changing negative thought patterns and maladaptive behaviors. Based on the premise that thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are interconnected, it aims to restructure faulty thinking (cognition) to improve emotional responses and behavioral patterns

Humanistic Approach to Therapy

a "third force" client-centered perspective developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow that emphasizes self-actualization, personal growth, and free will. It focuses on the present, fostering a positive, non-judgmental environment to help individuals reach their potential and achieve self-acceptance.

Person-Centered Therapy

a humanistic approach focusing on a non-judgmental environment that promotes self-actualization and personal growth. It emphasizes the client’s self-discovery through unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness, rather than directive, therapist-led advice.

Active Listening

a therapeutic technique, central to Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy, where the listener fully concentrates, understands, responds, and remembers what is being said. It involves echoing, restating, and clarifying the speaker's message to show empathy and encourage deeper emotional expression.

Unconditional Positive Regard (Also in Unit 4)

a caring, accepting, and non-judgmental attitude toward an individual, regardless of their behavior, thoughts, or failings. It is the practice of valuing a person as inherently worthy and lovable, even when disapproving of their actions

Dialectical Behavior Therapy

a specialized cognitive-behavioral therapy focusing on balancing emotional acceptance with positive behavioral change to treat intense emotional dysregulation. Developed by Marsha Linehan, it combines standard behavioral techniques with mindfulness to treat Borderline Personality Disorder, suicidal behaviors, and severe mental health conditions

Biomedical Therapies

physiological treatments—including psychoactive drugs, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and psychosurgery—designed to reduce or eliminate symptoms of psychological disorders by altering brain functioning. These therapies are rooted in the medical model, focusing on treating mental disorders as physical diseases caused by biological factors like brain chemistry imbalances or structural abnormalities.

Psychotropic (psychoactive) Medications

Psychotropic or psychoactive medications are chemical substances that cross the blood-brain barrier to alter brain neurochemistry, directly affecting a person’s mood, perception, consciousness, cognition, or behavior. In AP Psychology, these are primarily categorized by their effects on the central nervous system: stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates.

Antipsychotic Medications

a class of medication used in AP Psychology to treat severe mental disorders, particularly schizophrenia, by reducing positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. They primarily work by blocking dopamine receptors (neurotransmitters) to decrease activity, with some newer "atypical" types also targeting serotonin.

Antidepressants

a class of psychotropic medications used primarily to treat depression and anxiety disorders by balancing neurotransmitters like serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain. They work by increasing the availability of these neurotransmitters, typically acting as agonists to lift mood.

Antianxiety medications

medications used in AP Psychology to treat anxiety disorders, panic attacks, and extreme fear by depressing central nervous system activity, increasing feelings of relaxation and calm. As depressants, they often work by enhancing neurotransmitter activity (like GABA) to reduce arousal, with common examples including benzodiazepines like Xanax, Valium, and Ativan.

Lithium (Mood Stabilizer)

a mood-stabilizing medication commonly used as the first-line treatment for bipolar disorder to manage manic episodes and reduce depression severity. It works by modulating neurotransmitter activity, particularly balancing glutamate and reducing manic behaviors like impulsivity and aggression

Stimulants

a class of psychoactive drugs that speed up central nervous system (CNS) activity, leading to increased alertness, energy, heart rate, and respiration. They are often called "uppers" and frequently induce feelings of euphoria or enhanced mood while decreasing appetite and fatigue

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

a biomedical treatment for severe, treatment-resistant psychological disorders, primarily depression, where a brief electrical current is applied to the scalp under anesthesia to induce a generalized, therapeutic seizure. Often a last resort, it effectively treats mania, catatonia, and suicidal ideation.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, primarily to treat depression and OCD. It applies magnetic pulses to the scalp to excite or inhibit specific cortical areas (often the prefrontal cortex), helping improve mood regulation

Tardive Dyskinesia

a medication-induced movement disorder characterized by involuntary, repetitive, and uncontrollable movements—primarily in the face, tongue, lips, and limbs—resulting from long-term use of antipsychotic (neuroleptic) drugs. It is a serious side effect affecting motor control, often appearing after months or years of treatment for conditions like schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.

Evidence-based Treatment/Practice

the integration of the best available research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values/characteristics to guide treatment. It ensures therapy is based on rigorous empirical data (scientific studies) rather than intuition, maximizing the likelihood of successful treatment outcomes.

Individual Therapy

a confidential, one-on-one, goal-oriented treatment involving a trained therapist and a client aimed at overcoming psychological difficulties, reducing distress, or fostering personal growth. It often involves evidence-based techniques like cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, or humanistic therapy to improve functioning.

Group Therapy

a form of psychotherapy where one or more therapists treat a small group of clients simultaneously, rather than individually. It focuses on shared experiences, mutual support, and interpersonal interaction to address issues like depression, anxiety, or addiction. It is often as effective as individual therapy and more efficient

Couples Therapy

a form of psychotherapy where a therapist treats both partners in a committed relationship simultaneously to resolve conflicts, improve communication, and enhance intimacy. It focuses on the interpersonal dynamics and shared behaviors of the pair, addressing issues like infidelity, conflict, and life transitions

Family Therapy

a form of psychotherapy that treats the family as a unit rather than just focusing on one individual, aiming to improve communication, resolve conflicts, and strengthen relationships. It focuses on the family system's dynamics, rules, and boundaries, often dealing with issues like addiction, depression, or behavioral problems.

Hypnosis

a social interaction where one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will occur. It involves highly focused attention, increased suggestibility, and reduced peripheral awareness, often used for pain relief and behavioral changes

Posthypnotic Suggestion

a command or instruction given to a person while under hypnosis that they carry out after waking from the hypnotic trance. Often triggered by a specific cue, this technique is used to influence behaviors, thoughts, or perceptions (e.g., stopping smoking or reducing pain) in a conscious state

Dissociation

a conscious awareness separation from previous memories, thoughts, feelings, or identity, often functioning as a defense mechanism against trauma or extreme stress. It involves a disruption in the normally integrated functions of consciousness and perception, ranging from mild daydreaming to severe identity alteration