AQA GCSE PE

Musculoskeletal system

the muscular system and the skeletal system working together

Flat bones

Large and protect vital organs

Long bones

Enable gross movements

Short bones

Enable finer, controlled movements

Articulating bones at shoulder

Scapula, Clavicle, Humerus

Articulating bones at elbow

Humerus, Radius, Ulna

Articulating bones at knee

Femur, Patella, Fibula, Tibia

Articulating bones at ankle

Tibia, Fibula, Talus

Functions of the skeleton

Support, Protection, Movement, Shape and Structure, Blood Cell Production, Storage of Minerals

Synovial joints

An area of the body where two or more articulating bones meet

Tendons

Very strong, non-elastic cords that join muscle to bone

Bursae

A sac filled with liquid floating inside the joint to reduce friction between tendon and bone

Joint Capsule

Tissue that stops synovial fluid from escaping and encloses and supports and holds the bones together

Cartilage

A tough but flexible tissue that acts as a buffer between the bones, preventing bones rubbing together and causing friction

Synovial membrane

The lining inside the joint capsule that secretes synovial fluid

Synovial fluid

A clear and slippery liquid that lubricates the joint and stops the bones rubbing together

Ligaments

Bands of elastic fibre that attach bone to bone, keeping the joints stable by restricting movement

Types of freely movable joints

Ball and socket, KInge

Extension

Increase in the angle of bones at a joint

Flexion

Decrease in the angle of bones at a joint

Abduction

Movement of a bone or limb away from the midline of the body

Adduction

Movement of a bone or limb towards the midline of the body

Circumduction

Movement of a bone or limb in a circular pattern

Rotation

A circular movement around a joint

Plantar flexion

Movement at the ankle joint that points the toes and increases the angle at the ankle joint

Dorsiflexion

Movement at the ankle joint that flexes the foot upwards and decreases the angle at the ankle joint

Muscle groups operating at the shoulder

Deltoid, Trapezius, Pectorals, Latissimus Dorsi, BIceps, Triceps, Rotator cuff

Muscle groups operating at the hip

Gluteals, Hip Flexors

Muscle groups operating at the knee

Quadriceps, Hamstrings

Muscle groups operating at the ankle

Tibialis anterior, Gastrocnemius

Prime mover/Agonist

The muscle/muscle group that contracts to create movement

Antagonist

The muscle/muscle group that relaxes to allow movement

Antagonistic pairs at the elbow

Bicep and Tricep

Antagonistic pairs at the hip

Hip Flexor and Gluteals

Antagonistic pairs at the knee

Hamstring and Quadriceps

Antagonistic pairs at the ankle

Tibialis Anterior and Gastrocnemius

Isotonic contraction

A muscle contraction where the muscle changes in length

Eccentric

A muscle contraction when the muscle lengthens

Concentric

A muscle contraction when the muscle shortens

Isometric contraction

A muscle contraction where the length of the muscle does not change when it contracts, there is no limb movement as a result.

Cardio-respiratory system

The respiratory system and the cardiovascular system working together, enabling the body to breathe, pumping blood and oxygen around the body, whilset getting rid of carbon dioxide.

Pathway of Air in the body

Mouth/Nose, Trachea, Lungs, Bronchus, Bronchioles, Alveolus, Alveoli

Gaseous Exchange

Oxygen that has been breathed in passes through the alveoli and into the red blood cells in the capillaries.

In the capillaries, oxygen combines with haemoglobin( a protein in the blood cells) to form oxyhaemoglobin, which is then carried around the body.

At the same time, haemoglobin carries carbon dioxide from the body to the capillaries.

The carbon dioxide in the capillaries passes through the alveoli and is breathed out.

Alveoli Adaptations

very thin(short diffusion distance), moist(allowing gases to dissolve so they can diffuse quickly), large surface area(so the diffusion can take place over a large area), Numerous capillaries running across the alveoli(meaning there is a high concentration gradient)

Mechanics of breathing

As we inhale, the chest cavity changes shape, as the diaphragm flattens and moves downwards.

The intercostal muscles contract, raising the ribs and pushing out the sternum, making the chest cavity larger.

This reduces air pressure inside the chest cavity and causes air to be sucked into the lungs.

The reverse is true for exhalation.

Mechanics of breathing while exercising

The lungs expand and contract much more when breathing during exercise.

This is so that more oxygen can be inhaled to supply more oxygen to working muscles, and more carbon dioxide can be exhaled to remove the increased amount of carbon dioxide.

More muscles are also involved in breathing. The pectorals and sternocleidomastoid assist in raising the sternum when inhaling. The abdominals pull the rib cage down more quickly, forcing air out quickly when exhaling.

Spirometer

A piece of equipment used to measure the air capacity of the human lungs

Tidal Volume

The normal amount of air inhaled or exhaled per breath. This increases with exercise

Expiratory Reserve Volume

The amount of air that can be forced out after tidal volume. This decreases with exercise.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

The amount of air that can be forced in after tidal volume. This decreases with exercise.

Residual Volume

The amount of air that remains in the lungs after maximal expiration. This does not change with exercise

Vital Capacity

The largest amount of air that can be forcibly expired after the deepest possible inhalation.

Cardiovascular system

Carries blood around the body

Arteries

Thick Muscular Walls

Small Internal Diameter(Lumen) Maintains Pressure

Can Measure Pulse

Carry Blood Away Blood From The Heart

Veins

Thinner Muscular Walls

Large Internal Diameter(Lumen)

Veins Preventing Backflow

Carry Blood To The Heart

Capillaries

Connect Veins To Arteries

One Cell Thick

Pathway of Blood

Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava

It then passes through a valve to the right ventricle

The pulmonary artery transports the deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Gaseous exchange occurs, resulting in oxygenated blood

The pulmonary vein transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left

atrium.

It then passes through a value to the left ventricle

Oxygenated blood is ejected from the heart and is transported to the body via the aorta.

Diastole

The chambers of the heart relaxing and filling with blood

Systole

The chambers of the heart contracting and emptying with blood

Blood Pressure

Made up of two readings

The systolic reading measures the pressure of the blood when the heart contracts

The diastolic reading measure the pressure of the blood when the heart relaxes

Redistribution of Blood during Exercise

When at rest, most blood is directed to organs

During exercise blood is redirected to muscles

This is done by vasodilation and vasoconstriction

Vasoconstriction

Narrowing of blood vessels, reducing blood flow

Vasodialation

Widening of blood vessels, increasing blood flow

Stroke Volume (SV)

The volume of blood pumped out of the heart by each ventricle in one contraction

Heart Rate(HR)

Beats per minute

Cardiac Output (Q)

The volume of blood ejected from the heart in one minute Q = SV x HR. It increases with exercise

Aerobic Respiration

Takes place in the presence of oxygen. When exercise takes place over a long period and at a low-moderate intensity. It is the preferred way of working, as lots of energy can be produced and with no harmful by-products.

Aerobic Respiration Equation

Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

Anaerobic Respiration

Takes place in the absence of oxygen. When exercise takes place over a short period and at a high intensity, as the lungs and heart cannot supply enough blood, and thus oxygen to the working muscles. It produces Lactic Acid as a by-product.

Anaerobic Respiration Equation

Glucose -> Lactic Acid + Energy

EPOC

Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption, another term for oxygen debt. It is why we still breathe after intense exercise. The oxygen breaks down lactic acid into glucose, carbon dioxide and water

Recovery Processes(Cool Down)

Ending a session gradually, taking some light exercise and some gradual stretching. Gradually reducing intensity helps maintain an elevated breathing/heart rate, ensuring blood continues to flow to muscles. This helps replenish the working muscles with oxygen. It also helps the body to convert lactic acid to glucose, carbon dioxide and water, preventing stiffness following exercise.

Recovery Processes(Diet Manipulation)

Drinking water to rehydrate helps the body to recover and replace the fluids lost during exercise, allowing you to train again. How much water you should drink can depend on factors like air temperature, humidity, altitude and body composition.

Carbohydrate loading is a strategy used by endurance athletes, limiting the length and severity of their recovery period. It involves eating as many complex carbohydrates before an event so the body has available glucose to meet the demands of their performance.

Timing protein intake is important for power athletes. Small tears occur in the muscle during training and in a process called hypertrophy, the muscles increase in size and strength when the tears heal. Consuming protein after training provides the body with nutrients it needs to heal the tears quickly and repair muscle.

Recovery Processes(Ice-Baths and Massages)

Ice baths and massages following exercise prevent DOMS.

Massages increase blood flow to muscles and speed up the recovery process, and reduce pain.

Ice baths help flush out lactic acid from the working muscles. The cold causes vasoconstriction, forcing lactic acid out. When leaving the cold, vasoconstriction occurs, bringing oxygenated blood to the muscles.

Immediate Effects of Exercise

Heart rate increases, as the heart works harder to deliver blood to the working muscles.

You will feel hotter and body temperature increases.

You will breathe more deeply and frequently, as your body delivers more oxygen to the working muscles.

You will sweat and your face will redden, as a part of the body's temperature control system.

Short-Term Effects of Exercise

You may feel tired

You may feel light-headed

You may feel nauseous

Your muscles may ache a little bit

You may experience DOMS if the intensity was high enough

You may experience muscle cramps

The negative effects are common, until a regular exercise routine is established.

Long-Term Effects of Exercise

Your body will change shape

You will have improvement in components of fitness

Your stamina will improve

Your muscle will increase in size and produce greater strength(hypertrophy)

Your heart will increase in size(cardiac hypertrophy)

Your resting heart-rate will lower, bradycardia is the name given to a slow resting heart-rate

123?

FLE! BAD!

Extension as a lever

1st Class

Plantarflexion as a lever

2nd Class

Flexion as a lever

3rd Class

What is the issue with fun?

Some Times

Fun Starts

Too Late

Plane

A line dividing the body into two parts

Axis

A line about which the body rotates

Flexion and Extension (Plane and Axis)

Sagittal Plane Transverse Axis

Abduction and Adduction (Plane and Axis)

Frontal Plane Sagittal Axis

Rotation and Circumduction (Plane and Axis)

Transverse Plane Longitudinal Axis

Somersault (Plane and Axis)

Sagittal Plane Transverse Axis

Cartwheel (Plane and Axis)

Frontal Plane Sagittal Axis

360 (Plane and Axis)

Transverse Plane Longitudinal Axis

Health

A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity

Fitness

The ability to meet or cope with the demands of the environment

Agility

The ability to move and change direction quickly, at speed, while maintaining control.

Balance

Maintaining the centre of the mass over the base of support.

Static Balance

Balance performed with little or no movement

Dynamic Balance

Balance performed during a movement

Cardiovascular Endurance

Also known as aerobic power. The ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to the working muscles.

Coordination

The ability to use two or more different parts of the body together, smoothly and efficiently.

Flexibility

The range of movement possible at a joint.

Muscular Endurance

The ability or a muscle or a muscle group to undergo repeated contractions, avoiding fatigue.