Psych Unit 4 (Learning)

Learning

Learning

Process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information and behavior

Habituation

Organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure (lack of reaction, not lack of neuron firing)

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. May be 2 stimuli, as in classical conditioning, or a response and it’s consequences, as in operant.

Stimulus

Event or situation that evokes a response.

Cognitive learning

Acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language.

Classical conditioning

Type of learning where one learns to link 2+ stimuli and thus anticipate events.

Neural stimuli (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response pre-conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

In CC, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response

Unconditioned response (UR)

In CC, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (like salivating) to a US (food in mouth)

Conditioned response (CR)

In CC, a learned response to a once-natural now-conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In CC, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with a US, can trigger a CR

Ivan Pavlov

The classical conditioning GUY (Pavlov’s dogs)

Behaviorism

View that psych should be 1. an objective science and 2. study behavior without reference to mental processes. Today many agree with 1, but not 2.

John B. Watson

Radically nurture (as opposed to nature), very much “out-there” behaviorist. (Conducted Little Albert with wife Rosalie Rayner)

Acquisition

In CC, the initial stage, when one links a neural stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the NS begins triggering the CR. In operant, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Delayed conditioning

Method of acquisition, the conditioned stimulus occurs first, but there is a little overlap between the CS and US

Trace conditioning

Method of acquisition, AKA space conditioning, where there is a brief pause between CS and US

Simultaneous conditioning

Method of acquisition where the CS and US occur at the exact same time, does not work as one doesn’t predict the other

Backward conditioning

Method of acquisition where the US comes before the CS, does not work as the CS doesn’t predict the US

Higher-order (second-order) conditioning

Occurs when a conditioned response becomes associated with a second unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a dog salivates at a bell, you begin to associate the bell with a beep, and eventually the dog will salivate at a beep. In operant, it’s called secondary reinforcement.

Extinction

Diminishing of conditioned response, occurs in classical conditioning when US does not follow CS, occurs in operant when response stops being reinforced

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CR (suppressed not stopped)

Generalization

Tendency (once a response is conditioned) for similar stimuli to CS to elicit the same response

“Little Albert” study

Study by Watson that associated a loud terrifying noise with rat for a baby named Albert. Albert became afraid of rats and other furry creatures as well.

Discrimination

In CC, learned ability to distinguish between CS and and stimuli that don’t signal a US

Operant conditioning

Type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Law of effect

Thorndike’s principal that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely, and that behavior followed by an unfavorable consequence becomes less likely

B.F. Skinner

“Father of behaviorism”, basically the founder and driver of operant conditioning

Operant chamber

AKA Skinner box, a chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food/water reinforcer, attached devices record rate of pressing

Reinforcement

(Skinner concept) Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping

Procedure where reinforcer guides behavior closer and closer to desired behavior

Discriminative stimulus

Stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement, whereas another does not (go on green light, not red)

Positive reinforcement

Increase behavior with positive reinforcers (add a desired stimulus)

Negative reinforcement

Increase behavior by reducing negative stimuli. Strengthens behavior by removal, NOT the same as punishment.

Primary reinforcers

Innate, satisfier for a biological need. An example is being given food.

Conditioned (secondary) reinforcers

Learned association with primary reinforcers (push a button, get food)

Reinforcement schedule

Pattern defining how often desired results are reinforced

Continuous reinforcement

Response is reinforced every time it occurs. You learn very quickly, but it will be forgotten as soon as you stop rewarding it.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Only reinforced sometimes, slower acquisition but better resistance to extinction (than continuous)

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforce after specific number of responses (one free coffee after you buy ten!)

Variable-ratio schedule

Reinforces after unpredictable number of responses (slot machine/gambling)

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforces after specific period of time has passed (sale every Tuesday!)

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforces after unpredictable time intervals (getting an answer to your text)

Punishment

Event that decreases preceding behavior (positive punishment adds an adverse stimulus, negative punishment removes a positive stimulus)

Superstition

False correlation - a tendency to repeat a behavior that was followed by a positive reinforcer, even if they are unrelated. Happens often in sports.

Taste aversion

A biological tendency in which an organism learns after a single experience to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness. Probably related to evolution.

John Garcia

Discovered that taste aversion is an acquired reaction to the smell or taste that an animal is exposed to before getting sick. He discovered this by giving rats flavored water before exposing them to radiation that made them sick.

Instinctive drift

The tendency for an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response; you cannot make an animal go against its nature for long. (Ex: pigs taught to pick up something and carry it in their mouth will revert to pushing it with their snout)

Biofeedback

System for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back info about subtle physiological state

Respondent behavior

Automatic response to stimulus

Operant behavior

Operates on environment (consequences)

Cognitive map

Mental representation of the layout of your environment (rats display apparent map-driven behavior after exploring maze)

Latent learning

Learning occurs, but isn’t apparent until there’s incentive to display it

Edward Tolman

The first psychologist to study latent learning (information lies dormant or is not immediately expressed upon learning) in animals.

Insight

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution (lightbulb moment)

Intrinsic motivation

Desire to perform a behavior for it’s own sake. (I enjoy reading, so I will read)

Overjustification

Overuse of bribes and rewards for a behavior, will destroy intrinsic motivation. (I used to read because I liked it, but now I read for candy. When the candy stops, I stop reading)

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by an external reward or punishment

Coping

Alleviating stress via emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Problem-focused coping

Attempt to directly alleviate stressor by removing it or changing the way you interact with it

Emotion-focused coping

Attempt to alleviate stressor by avoidance/ignorance and attending to stress-induced emotional needs

Learned helplessness

Hopelessness and passive resignation an animal/human learns when unable to avoid repeated adverse events

Self-control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

External locus of control

Perception that chance or outside forces beyond personal control determine fate

Internal locus of control

Perception that you control your own fate

Martin Seligman

Developed the theory of learned helplessness. He is a positive psychologist who promotes mental well-being through the creation of self-help programs and lectures.

Observational (social) learning

Learning by observing others (vicarious)

Modeling

Process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Albert Bandura

The creator of the social learning theory. This theory states that people can learn simply by observing others in a social context. His most famous social learning experiment was the Bobo Doll experiment.

Vicarious reinforcement

The learning and reinforcing of behavior by watching the consequences of other people's behavior and mimicking the behavior that yields the desired consequence.

Vicarious punishment

Learning not to mimic another’s behavior by witnessing the consequences/punishments for that behavior

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or observing another doing so, mirroring may allow imitation and empathy

Theory of mind

A person's general understanding that the people around them each have their own unique beliefs, perceptions, and desires.

Violence-viewing effect

When an individual viewing television or film witnesses a scenario in which a violent act is not punished and thus is desensitized to violence and may even imitate it

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior, the opposite being antisocial behavior

Robert Rescorla

Research focused on the contingency model of conditioning, which showed that not all stimulus-response pairings result in conditioning. They are mainly dependent upon the cognitive interpretation as to whether the pairing is logical.