Sociology Exam #2

sex

the perceived biological differences that society typically uses to distinguish males from females 

gender

social position; the set of social arrangements that are built around normative sex categories

(more emphasized in sociology)

sexuality

desire, sexual preference, and intimate behavior

essentialism

arguments explaining social phenomena in terms of natural, biological, or evolutionary inevitabilities

cisgender

people whose gender corresponds to their birth sex

transgender

people whose gender does not correspond to their birth sex

how is gender a social institution?

• establishes patterns of expectations for people

• orders our daily lives

• fundamental building block for society

• gender is a crucial part of how we identify ourselves

hegemonic masculinity

the condition in which men are dominant and privileged 

• the dominance and privilege are invisible

• often regarded as the norm against which all others are judged

patriarchy

a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity

what is feminism?

• consciousness-raising movement

• based on idea that women and men should be accorded equal opportunities

• chief goal: getting people to understand that gender is an organizing principle of life

• gender structures social relations unequally

• power tied to gender differences

structural funcationalism

theory of gender inequality that assumes gender differences exist to fulfill necessary functions

critiques:

• overlooks posibility that other structures could fulfill same functions

• does not account for historical changes

• dichotomous view of sex and gender

Talcott Parson

created Sex Role Theory (how we might have different needs in society)

Conflict Theory

theory of gender inequality that says the root of all social relations, including relations of production, stemmed from unequal gender relation (capitalism and patriarchy)

critiques:

• elements of essentialist thinking; world is divided into two groupd pittd against each other

Symbolic Interactionism

theory of gender inequality, where gender is a process in which people participate with every social interaction they have (“doing gender”)

• in doing gender, people contribute to reaffirm, and reproduce gender inequality

Black Feminism and Intersectionality

theory of gender inequality where there is no single category of women or me

intersectionality

critical to understand the interplay between social identities

matrix of domination

intersecting domains of oppression (position is based on intersectional identities along multiple dimensions) 

heteronormativity

idea that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate

sexism

occurs when a person’s sex or gender is the basis for judgment, discrimination, or other differential treatment against that person

what is gender inequality at work?

• women’s roles expanded into paid work, but men’s roles hardly changed in the domestic sphere

• sexual harassment 

• wage gap: women earn 82 cents to every $1 of men’s wages

• feminization of jobs

glass ceiling

invisible limit on women’s climb up the occupational ladder

glass escalator

accelerate promotion of men to the top of work organization, especially in feminized jobs

what is sexual harassment?

• form of discrimination; illegal

• involves everything from inappropriate jokes on the jjob to outright sexual assault to sexual “barter”

• intended to make women feel uncomfortable and unwelcome on the job

• hostile environment

race

group of people who share a set of characteristics (typically physical ones) and are said to share a common bloodline

• social construction

• not natural or biological

• constructed in the interests of groups that wish to maintain power and social exclusion

racism

the belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal human traits

what are the characteristics of racist beliefs?

• humans are divided into distinct bloodlines and/or physical traits

• these bloodlines/physical traits are linked to distinct cultures, behaviors, personalities, and intellectual abilities

• certain groups are superior to others

racialization

the formation of a racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people

• no racial boundaries are drawn along accurate lines or real differences

• once racialized, a group faces real social consequences

race

• externally imposed

• involuntary

• usually based on physical differences

• hierarchical 

• exclusive

• unequal

ethnicity

• voluntary

• self-defined

• nonhierarchical

• fluid and multiple

• cultural

• planar

symbolic ethnicity

identifying with past or future nationality

• particularly relevant to white middle-class Americans

• matter of choice

• no risks of stigma

• confers pleasure of feeling like an individual 

What racial groups are in the U.S.?

historically tied to hierarchies where white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants dominated over other groups

• Native Americans

• Asian Americans

• African Americans

• Middle Eastern Americans

• Latinx

what is whiteness?

a flexible, socially constructed label that has expanded over time 

what is the goal of scholarship on whiteness?

to call attention to the social construction of ensuring privilege

prejudice

negative thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group

discrimination

harmful or negative acts against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category without regard to their individual merit

institutional racism

institutions and social dynamics that may seem race neutral but actually disadvantage minority groups

• “color-blind racism”

what are the broad forms of inter-group relations?

• assimilation

• pluralism

• segregation

• conflict

pluralism

presence and engaged coexistence of numerous distinct groups in one society

• no single group commands majority status

• minority groups live separately but equally

segregation

legal or social practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnicity

• Plessy v Ferguson: “separate but equal”

• Brown v Board of Education: struck down “separate but equal” doctrine

• school segregation and residential segregation

what are the group responses to oppression?

• withdrawal

• passing

• acceptance

• resistance